V V 



TWO 
TYPES OF RURAL SCHOOLS 



WITH SOME FACTS SHOWING 
ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS 



BY 
ERNEST BURNHAM 

DIEECTOE OF THE DEPARTMENT OF EURAL SCHOOLS, 

WESTERN MICHIGAN NORMAL SCHOOL 

RESEARCH SCHOLAR, TEACHERS COLLEGE, 1910-1911 



Submitted in partial fulfilment of the require- 
ments for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy, 
in the Faculty of Philosophy, Columbia University 



PUBLISHED BY 

EtucifBtB (EaiU^t, (Enlnmhiu Hniu^raitu 

NEW YORK CITY 

1912 



TWO 
TYPES OF RURAL SCHOOLS 



WITH SOME FACTS SHOWING 
ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS 



BY 

ERNEST BURNHAM 

(/ 

DIRECTOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF RURAL SCHOOLS, 

WESTERN MICHIGAN NORMAL SCHOOL 

RESEARCH SCHOLAR, TEACHERS COLLEGE, 1910-1911 



Submitted in partial fulfilment of the require- 
ments for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy, 
in the Faculty of Philosophy, Columbia University 



PUBLISHED BY 

ISmt^tvB (Unih^t, (Enlnmbm Hniwreitji 

NEW YORK CITY 
1912 






Copyright, 1912, by Ernest Burnham 



Gin 

SEP jgjj 



ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

This study has been made enjoyable by the generous contribu- 
tion of effort and the spirit of cheer by teachers and by citizens 
generally in the localities surveyed. The author's indebtedness 
is gratefully acknowledged. Special thanks are due to Dr. 
Frank M. McMurry and Dr. George D. Strayer of Teachers 
College, Dr. Edward C. Elliott of the University of Wisconsin, 
and Dr. L. H. Bailey of Cornell University, for advice in deter- 
mining the general plan, and to Dr. McMurry and Dr. Strayer 
for specific directions in detail made during the progress of the 
work; to Mr. Sheridan Mapes, Commissioner of Schools, Kala- 
mazoo County, Michigan, for the use of his official facilities for 
gathering data ; to Dr. L. D. Coffman, Charleston, lUinois, for 
very helpful suggestions; to President Dwight B. Waldo of the 
Western Michigan Normal School for providing the oppor- 
tunity to make the study; to Mr. John Phelan and other 
colleagues of the author in the faculty of the Western Michigan 
Normal School, for making the early completion of the work 
possible by relieving the writer of part of his teaching; and to 
his wife for unremitting care in collaboration throughout the 
whole undertaking. 

E. B. 



ni 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 

CHAPTER I 

INTRODUCTION 

Purpose I 

Scope 2 

The Survey Idea 2 

Local Areas Chosen .......... 3 

Natural Features 5 

Historical Statement 5 

Definitions of Terms 9 

Presentation and Discussion ........ 10 

A Further Suggestion 11 



CHAPTER II 
FINANCIAL, COMMUNITY, AND FAMILY DATA 

Division I. Financial Conditions 

Table I. Nativity and Tenure of Farmers 

Table II. Investment and Mortgage Indebtedness . 

Table III. Expenditures for Labor and Fertilizers . 

Table IV. Animals and Animal Products 

Table V. Grain, Vegetable, and Fruit Products 

Division II. Community Activities . . . . 

Table VI. Data of Religious and Fraternal Organizations 

Table VII. Post Offices and Libraries 

Table VIII. Lecture Courses and Fairs 
Division III. Family Survey 

Table IX. Family Enumerations .... 

Table X. Necessary Travel 

Table XI. School Service . . . . 

Table XII. Church Membership, Distribution, and Activity 

Table XIII. Fraternity Membership and Distribution 

Table XIV. Insurance Data 

Table XV. Business Use of Mail .... 

Table XVI. Telephone Service 

Table XVII. Visiting and Correspondence . 

Table XVIII. Ownership and Use of Books 

Table XIX. Number and Distribution of Current Publica 

tions Taken ..... 

Table XX. Offices in Organizations .... 



12 
13 
14 
15 
15 
16 
16 
18 

19 
20 
21 
22 

23 
24 

25 
26 
26 
27 
27 
28 
29 

31 
32 



VI 



Contents 



Table XXL 


Modern Conveniences 


33 


Table XXII. 


Current Improvements ..... 


33 


Table XXIIL 


General Impressions 


34 


Table XXIV. 


Distribution of Sixty Owners 


36 


Table XXV. 


Distribution of Sixty Renters 


40 


Table XXVI. 


Relative Facts About Owners and Renters 
Summarized 


44 



CHAPTER III 

SCHOOL STATUS 

Available Records 46 

Division I. The Districts 47 

Table XXVII. Areas, Valuations, and School Properties . 48 
Table XXVIII. Tax Rate, Per Capita Cost, Salaries, and Sur- 
plus . 50 

Table XXIX. School Libraries 51 

Table XXX. Census, Enrollment, and Attendance of Pupils 52 
Table XXXI. School Year, Teachers, and Monthly Wage . 53 
Table XXXII. Attendance at Annual School Meeting . . 54 
Table XXXIII. Summarized Comparison, District School 
Townships and Consolidated School Town- 
ships 55 

Division II. The Teachers 56 

Table XXXIV. Age, Sex, and Parentage of Teachers . . 56 
Table XXXV. Academic and Professional Training of Teach- 
ers 58 

Table XXXVI. Current Professional Aids Used by Teachers . 60 

Table XXXVII. Employment and Remuneration of Teachers ,, 62 
Table XXXVIII. Supervisory and Other Official Visits Received 

by Teachers 64 

Table XXXIX. Visits Interchanged by Homes and Teachers 65 
Table XL. Social and Entertainment Activities of Teach- 
ers ........ 67 

Table XLL Facts About Teachers of District Schools and 
Teachers of Consolidated Schools Sum- 
marized 69 

Division III. The Pupils . 70 

Table XLII. Complete Distribution of Children on School 

Census, by Age and Grade or Other Status 72 
Table XLIII. Distribution of Actual Attendance in Ten-Day 

Groups 75 

Table XLIV. Distribution by Grades Completed to Occupa- 
tions 77 

Division IV. The Schools 77 

Table XLV. Sample Distribution of Grade Enrollments . 78 



Contents 



Vll 



Table XLVI. Median Time in Minutes of Recitations by 

Subjects and Grades ..... 
Paragraph Summaries of More General Inquiries 

Table XLVII. Daily Program of Recitations and Out-of-Class 
Activities of One District School 

Table XLVIII. Daily Program of Recitations and Out-of-Class 
Activities of the First Eight Grades of One 
Consolidated School 



79 
8i 

82 



83 



CHAPTER IV 

CONSTRUCTIVE INTERPRETATIONS 

Division I. School Considerations 
Experience and Science 
The Setting 
The Discussion 

Section I. Maintenance 

Section II. Instruction . 

Section III. Children 

Section IV. The Institution 

Section V. Specific Constructive Suggestions 
Division II. Community Considerations 
Industry 
The Homes 
The Church 
Civic Life 
Community Solidarity 



87 
87 
88 

91 
91 
97 
100 
106 
109 
112 
114 
116 
118 
120 
121 



APPENDIX A 

The Comstock, Michigan, Consolidated School . 
Table I. Summaries of District and Teachers . 
Table II. Age, Grade, and Other Status Distribution 
Table III. Actual Attendance Distribution . 



123 

124 

125 

125 



APPENDIX B 



Township Maps 



126 



TWO TYPES OF RURAL SCHOOLS 

CHAPTER I 
INTRODUCTION 

Purpose 

The purpose of this study is to assemble reliable and correctly 
correlated data about the two types of rural schools most com- 
monly under discussion at present — the district school and the 
consolidated school. Facts of economic and social significance 
have been collected and tabulated, and these results are pre- 
sented as preliminary to, and as essential to the best understand- 
ing of the information about the schools. A knowledge of the 
financial limitation and the existing ingrained social and intel- 
lectual standards of any locality, should aid in minimizing the 
margin of error sure to be found in an unqualified and uncorre- 
lated study of the schools alone. 

The purpose in mind takes a dual character when direct ap- 
plication for immediate and future practical results becomes the 
chief consideration. First in order is a desire to use modern 
scientific method in dealing with the question of rural education 
— a question too long bandied about, for the most part, in the 
fog of mere opinion. And second, is the resolution to add a 
true contribution, even though limited to the size of a teacher's 
purse, to the slowly accumulating fund of public information, 
to which the constructive public school agencies of today and 
the historians of education of the present and future may turn 
for trustworthy source material. 

A serious difficulty, which threatens the fidelity of the stu- 
dent to the before-stated purpose, is the fact of immersion in 
the problem itself at the same time that he is trying to make 
his study critically true. Facts and conditions come clearly into 
his purview which arouse pity, shame, indignation; and, at the 
same time, his attention may be intermittently absorbed in real 

I 



2 Two Types of Rural Schools 

satisfaction upon the identification of many services of great 
value, which pubHc education has all along rendered in rural com- 
munities. In short, the difficulty for the student who is also 
a participant in the field of his study, is to maintain in his 
thinking the scientific attitude rather than the advocate attitude. 

Scope 

In order to apply methods of tabulation and comparison to 
advantage, the scope of an investigation must be broad enough 
to yield numerals running into sufficient figures, from a mxrely 
mechanical point of view ; and there must also be sufficient scope 
to take in units of familiar denominations, either political or 
geographical. Political units such as precincts, villages, town- 
ships, official districts for school or other purposes, counties, 
and others, give terms which are in the current vocabulary ; like- 
wise, such geographical terms as section or square mile, town- 
ship, county, and so forth, while less comparable as between 
localities, with the exception of the section, and less definitely 
visual, because much less often subjects of public discussion, 
are more economical for use than wholly new units. 

Fortunately, political and geographical units coincide in many 
instances where public school administration is involved; and 
in other cases, unlike school denominations are readily reducible 
to a common denominator, either political, geographical, or 
both. Where neither of these divisors can be used to advantage, 
the numbers under consideration may lend themselves to ex- 
pression in percentages, thus affording a usable basis of com- 
parison. 

The Survey Idea 

The survey idea, the taking of stock of existing conditions in 
itemized details, is growing rapidly into wide application in vari- 
ous fields of human activity. This idea seems to be well adapted 
for use in a scientific study of education. The far flung, and 
oftentimes far fetched, inspirational vision which, clothed in 
glowing terms, is the splendid shibboleth of many an educa- 
tional leader, makes its own contribution to progress. Brought 
to earth and reduced to terms of actual fact, inspiring visions, 
if true, may well multiply rather than divide their power to 
serve humanity. 



Introduction 3 

In an address before the Training Conference for Rural 
Leaders, Cornell University, July 26, 191 1, Dean L. H. Bailey 
urged the importance of the survey in country-life work, as 
follows : 

" The goal of survey-work in agriculture is to make a record 
of the entire situation and to tell the whole truth. Fragmentary 
surveys and piece-work, however good they may be in them- 
selves, do not represent the best effort in surveys. Practically 
all our surveys have thus far been fragmentary or unrelated, but 
this is the work of a beginning epoch. We shall almost neces- 
sarily be obliged to do still further fractional and detached 
work: but it is time that we begin to train the imagination on 
completer and sounder programs. The whole basis and condi- 
tion of the rural community must be known and recorded. The 
community must know where it stands. It must understand its 
assets and its liabilities." 

In the personal direction of men engaged in this work, Dean 
Bailey's injunction, emphasized by repetition and copious illus- 
tration, is : " Be sure of the accuracy of your facts and then 
keep strictly within your facts in any results or general con- 
clusions which you derive." He says that only a genius can 
tell the truth without the facts, and that he is coming to be- 
lieve that even the geniuses, who are credited with the great in- 
tuitional thoughts of mankind, were after all controlled by the 
facts which functioned through them by means of race inheri- 
tance or otherwise. 

Be this as it may and granting that adequate surveys require 
such financing and manning as can be expected only from some 
governmental agency like the agricultural colleges, or some 
great private foundation like the Russell Sage Foundation, there 
yet remains the necessity for multiplied detached or topical 
studies for the inoculation of the general public with the survey 
idea and for the development, by experience in actual survey 
work, of a group of students to whom the larger tasks of ade- 
quate backing may be confided with reasonable hope of success- 
ful issue. 

Local Areas Chosen 

The local areas chosen for this study are in Trumbull County, 
Ohio, and in Kalamazoo County, Michigan. For school data, 
the four townships of Kinsman, Vernon, Gustavus, and John- 



4 Two Types of Rural Schools 

ston, situated in the northeast quarter of Trumbull County, 
which is the second county south of Lake Erie on the Ohio- 
Pennsylvania boundary, were chosen to represent the consoli- 
dated type of school organization. The townships of Alamo, 
Cooper, Richland, and Ross, situated in the north quarter of 
Kalamazoo County, which is the second county east of Lake 
Michigan in the second tier of counties north of the Michigan- 
Indiana boundary, were chosen to represent the district type of 
school organization. (See maps in Appendix B.) 

These particular areas were selected for several apparently 
advantageous reasons. The Ohio area had been studied with 
considerable care a number of times and the results of these 
studies were available as matters of record. The Ohio Farmer, 
in its issues of February 3 and 10, 1906, published a brief but 
well written and fully illustrated study of Trumbull County 
centralized schools, by Mr. H. A. Diehl, a teacher of Ashtabula, 
Ohio. Under date of February, 19 10, Professor A. B. Graham, 
Superintendent of Agricultural Extension in the State Univer- 
sity, Columbus, Ohio, published two bulletins; one dealing in 
great detail with district schools in Ohio, and the other treat- 
ing the centralized or consolidated schools of Ohio, with equally 
searching itemization. There was issued from the Office of Ex- 
periment Stations, U. S. Department of Agriculture, in October, 
1 910, Bulletin No. 232 by Mr. George W. Knorr. This bulletin 
presented the most prolonged and thorough general investigation 
of consolidated rural schools that had yet been made. The 
Trumbull County area was one of the centers of the study re- 
ported in this bulletin. 

Studies of the special area under consideration in Michigan 
were also matters of record and thus available for use in fur- 
ther investigation. The annual report of the State Department 
of Public Instruction for 1905 presents the results of a special 
study of Richland township, and there was published under the 
same authority in 1909 a bulletin reporting in full a searching 
study of Rural School Efficiency in Kalamazoo County, which 
was made by the present writer under the auspices of the De- 
partment of Economics and Sociology of the Carnegie Institu- 
tion of Washington and the Michigan Department of Public 
Instruction, 



Introduction 5 

The fact that the foregoing materials were at hand and al- 
ready somewhat familiar is sufficient reason for the areas named 
being used for the proposed investigation, if no facts of the 
natural or historical limitations of these areas render them seri- 
ously incomparable. 

Natural Features 

Trumbull County lies well toward the south of the glacial 
area and has an elevation of from iioo to 1200 feet. The soil 
is clay and sand loam, with considerable bottom land which is 
very fertile. The annual rainfall is ^44.22 inches (this rainfall 
is exceptionally great, it was less than 34 inches in 1908) and 
the temperature ranges from — ^20 degrees to 97 degrees, with a 
mean annual temperature of ^50.7 degrees. The timber is chest- 
nut, poplar, elm, beech, maple, sycamore, and, in the part of 
the county being studied there was a grove of twenty-five acres 
of white pine, one of the largest found on the whole Western 
Reserve. 

Kalamazoo County presents a surface of drift formation also, 
and it lies at an elevation of from 700 to 850 feet. The soil 
is a little more varied, shading from sand and clay into loams 
of these in combination with gravel and stone. There is a con- 
siderable acreage of prairie and muck soils. The annual rain- 
fall is -28.72 inches and the temperature records extremes of 
^-11 degrees and ^93 degrees, while the mean annual tempera- 
ture is ^47.09 degrees. Here, too, there are numerous creeks 
and many lakes. The timber is oak, hickory, maple, beech, elm, 
and several of the softer woods. 

Historical Statement 

A concise and adequate statement of the early political his- 
tory of *' The Connecticut Western Reserve " may be found in 
Hinsdale's " The Old Northwest," Chapter XIX. The purest 
New England stock had assembled in the Reserve by 1800, in 
sufficient numbers to set the machinery of local government in 
motion. The first quarter session court was held in Trumbull 



^ Figures for Wooster, Ohio, from the annual report of the Agricultural 
Experiment Station, 1910, p. 655, 

^Figures from annual report of Agricultural Experiment Station (Lan- 
sing), 1910, pp. 189-200. 



6 Two Types of Rural Schools 

County in August, 1800, and the first election was held in 
October, 1800. The best references for the local history are 
— "Historical Collections of the Mahoning Valley" (1876) and 
" Historical Collections of Ohio " by Dr. Henry Howe, Ohio 
Centennial Edition, 1902, in two volumes. These books are full 
of pioneer reminiscences and anecdotes, in many cases in the 
exact language of actual participants in the frontier hardships 
and victories. The family names, the high intellectual and moral 
standards and the fidelity with which the New England environ- 
ment was reproduced in so far as was possible, all go to show 
that the Ohio townships, which are the present subjects of 
study, grew from seed of the best American selection. 

Professor Andrew C. McLaughlin presents, in brief scope, 
the early political history of Michigan in his monograph on 
'' The Government of Michigan." Cooley's " Michigan," in the 
American Commonwealths series, is the best reference. Terri- 
torial government was organized in 1805, but little progress 
could be made until after the War of 1812. In 1823, in 1825, 
and again in 1827, the representative principle was enlarged in 
the territorial government until, in the last year, the territorial 
council became wholly elective. This indicates that Michigan's 
real growth, politically, came after 1820. Statehood came in 
1837, twenty-five years after it came to Ohio. Kalamazoo v/as 
first settled in 1829-30, Titus Bronson, a Connecticut Yankee, 
being the pathfinder for the settlement. The first local election 
was held in April, 1831, and the first court record bears date 
of October 17, 1831. The best references for the local history 
of Kalamazoo County are " The Michigan Pioneer Collections " 
(beginning with Vol. XIV, 1889, the title is " The Michigan 
Pioneer and Historical Collections ") now in thirty-eight vol- 
umes, but provided with excellent working index ; and a " His- 
tory of Kalamazoo County " compiled and published by J. M. 
Thomas in 1869. Early settlers here came from New England, 
New York, and Ohio. A quotation from the original official 
plan of the village of Kalamazoo, sets the standards of the set- 
tlers pretty definitely : 

" One square of sixteen rods for the courthouse ; one square 
of sixteen rods for a jail; one square of sixteen rods for an 
academy ; one square of eight rods for common schools ; one 
square of two acres for public burial grounds; four squares of 



Introduction 7 

eight rods each, for the four first religious denominations that 
become incorporated in said village agreeably to the statute of 
the Territory." (Thomas, History of Kalamazoo County, p. 

33.) 

The gist of the foregoing is that in natural resources, in the 
stock of settlers, and in institutional ideals, the two localities 
under consideration have not been notably different except in 
the one particular that the Ohio community is a generation 
older. However, there is another significant difference which 
should be kept in mind. The Ohio area is organized into town- 
ships of twenty-five square miles, and the Michigan townships 
have thirty-six square miles. Since political and geographical 
boundaries, in a large measure, set the community boundaries 
and since social gravitation tends to be dissipated by isolation, 
the likelihood of the community of smaller area acting as a unit 
is far greater. 

It seem.s that these localities were endowed, in their settlers, 
with approximately the same high appreciation of education. 
No doubt, the ability of each community to carry out its educa- 
tional purposes unaided has varied irregularly with the ups and 
downs of seasons and markets; but it is probably true that the 
range of variation has fluctuated about medians of resources not 
widely different as between the two localities. This being true, 
it remains only to notice how each locality has fared, relatively, 
in leadership, organization, and financial aid by the State. 

Samuel Lewis became State Superintendent of Common 
Schools in Ohio in 1837, and for three years devoted himself to 
the duties of this office with energy, ability, and success com- 
parable to that of Horace Mann in Massachusetts, and of 
John D. Pierce in Michigan. His three annual reports, together 
with the report of Calvin E. Stowe in 1837 on European school 
systems with especial reference to elementary education in Prus- 
sia, which was sent to every school district in the state, initi- 
ally capitalized, intellectually, the public school movement in 
Ohio. 

This same task was well done in Michigan by State Superin- 
tendent John D. Pierce (1837-1841) in close co-operation with 
Hon. Isaac E. Crary, representative of the territory and the 
state in Congress, and chairman of the Committee on Educa- 



8 Two Types of Rural Schools 

tion in the State Constitutional Convention. Both of these men 
were members of the convention which wrote the second state 
constitution in 1850, and they were powerful guardians of public 
education. If this study demanded, or permitted, a detailed re- 
cord of common school history in the two states under view, 
many names could be mentioned in connection with the definite 
advance steps in education to which they have the relation of 
leadership. 

The relative progressiveness of the two states, may be briefly 
indicated as follows : State normal schools were first officially 
urged — in Ohio in 1837, in Michigan in 1837, and established in 
Ohio in 1902 and in Michigan in 1849 (dedicated October, 
1852) ;^ graded course of study — Cincinnati, Ohio, 1840 — Flint, 
Michigan, 1846; high school — Cleveland, Ohio, 1846; ^Detroit, 
Michigan, i860; teachers' institute — Sandusky, Ohio, 1845 — 
Jackson, Michigan, 1846; city superintendent — Columbus, Ohio, 
1847 — village of Jonesville, Michigan, 1848; State Teachers 
Association — ^Ohio, 1847 — Michigan, 1852; educational journal 
— Ohio, 1 85 1 (passed to private control in 1859) — Michigan, 
1 854- 1 862 (published by the State Teachers Association) ; 
county supervision — repeatedly urged in Ohio from 1865 to 
1875 3.nd since, but not yet established — in Michigan, 1867, re- 
pealed 1879, re-established in 1887-1891 ; course of study for 
rural schools — in Ohio, not well established — in Michigan, 
written and recommended by a committee of county school 
secretaries in 1889, authorized in 1897, now in 9th revised edi- 
tion (Michigan legislature of 191 1, Act 217, gave the State 
Superintendent of Public Instruction power to dictate the course 
of study for rural schools) ; laws for certification of teachers, 
dreary history in both states, somewhat simplified in Michigan 
by institutional certification, e.g., by county normal training 
classes in 43 counties, by four normal schools, by seven colleges 
and the university; compulsory attendance laws — frequently re- 

^ Full account of dedication, Michigan State Normal School, State 
Superintendent's Report, 1853, pp. 51-146- 

^ Michigan's branches of the University for secondary instruction, de- 
layed the organization of high schools ; and a question about the legality of 
using public money for instruction beyond the common school, which was 
not settled until the famous decision favorable to high schools rendered by 
Judge Cooley in the Kalamazoo Case in 1874, also handicapped the high 
school movement. More than twenty other towns in Michigan reported 
high school departments of varying degrees of excellence in i860. 

I 



Introduction g 

vised in both states, advanced law in Ohio in 1893 — in Michi- 
gan, in 1905 ; temperance instruction law — in Ohio, in 1888 — in 
Michigan, in 1883; women vote to elect officers — in Ohio, in 
1894 — in Michigan, in 1893; township unit of organization — 
Ohio, 1890 — Michigan, optional law passed in 1909 not yet taken 
advantage of, though frequently voted upon (voted in three 
townships in April, 191 2) ; optional free text-book law — in 
Ohio, in 1894 — in Michigan, in 1889; laws for the consolidation 
of schools — in Ohio, special laws in 1894 and 1896, general laws, 
1898 and 1904 — in Michigan, for township districts in Northern 
Peninsula, in 1891, general laws in 1903 ; graduation from com- 
mon school — put on legal basis in Ohio, 1890 — in Michigan, 
1909 ; townships not having high schools required to pay tuition 
of common school graduates in high school — in Ohio, 1890 — in 
Michigan, 1909; instruction in agriculture in high schools re- 
quired — in Ohio, in 191 1, being voluntarily introduced in slowly 
increasing number of high schools in Michigan. 

These facts relating the steps each of the states under con- 
sideration has taken in its development of public education, re- 
veal several curious ditlerences as to the relative prominence 
given by neighboring localities to fundamental questions. 
The facts suggest that there were, in both states, more needs 
than the attention and resources at command could meet and 
that such questions as happened from time to time to get most 
advantageously urged on public attention, were sufficient to ex- 
haust the public initiative for the time being. However, it is 
clear that progress has come in both states by the same steps, 
though these steps have not been taken in the same order in 
each case; and that the present face of education in each state 
has the same expression of purposed improvement, even though 
particular features do vary in expressiveness as they have in the 

past. 

Definitions of Terms 

Natural and historical perspective is essential to accuracy in 
the use and understanding of terms, especially if the terms used 
are definitive of institutional life and growth. The foregoing 
paragraphs are intended to help the reader to judge for himself 
what margin of difference he must concede when the same terms 
are used in the comparative study of some characteristic phases 
of common school conditions in Ohio and in Michigan. 



10 Two Types of Rural Schools 

In order to further greatly increase the probabihty of weigh- 
ing truly the qualifying conditions in the two states, three 
classifications of data have been secured and will be presented 
before the school data are shown. First will be items of an 
economic significance chiefly, which have been tabulated at 
Washington directly from the federal census of 1910; second 
will be facts showing the collective social activities of the com- 
munities studied; and third, information relative to the home, 
social, educational, religious and industrial life of the families in 
the areas studied. 

The statistics presented are the accumulation of four distinct 
surveys of the same areas. The census enumerator gathered the 
financial data; the data of institutional and other collective ac- 
tivities were secured from records and interviews with officials; 
the family facts were secured by a house to house canvass ; and 
the school data were taken from records and regular and special 
reports of teachers and school officers. What is proposed, as 
was stated at the beginning of this chapter, is a searching com- 
parative study of district schools and consolidated schools as 
agencies of efficient rural education in reference, chiefly, to ele- 
mentary education. " Consolidated '^ rather than " centralized " 
will be used to designate the larger rural schools, since '' cen- 
tralized " suggests a whole township in one school, while " con- 
solidated " means any school of two or more districts com- 
bined. However, these two terms are interchangeable as applied 
to the Ohio consolidated schools here reported. 

Presentation and Discussion 

The details as to the securing of original items, the errors de- 
tected and eliminated as well as mention of possible mistakes not 
subject to definite detection, the methods of tabulation and com- 
parison in significant relations, useful items which may be ob- 
tained by further surveys of the same areas, and the considera- 
tion of such criticisms as have arisen during the progress of the 
study, will all claim attention as the chapters are developed. 

In the second chapter, the economic, institutional, and family 
data will be presented in detail with only explanatory discus- 
sion ; and Chapter III will present the school details in like set- 
ting. These two chapters put the raw materials before the 



Introduction ii 

reader and enable anyone to make such tabulations as are sig- 
nificant to him or suited to a particular purpose. Chapter IV 
states some constructive interpretations of the school and com- 
munity data looking toward progress in rural education. 

A Further Suggestion 

It is not claimed that either of the localities studied is especi- 
ally typical. The Ohio schools are among the oldest consoli- 
dated schools west of the original states, and in the common 
course of events, may present many features which will be 
prominent in the typical consolidated school when such a type 
has emerged. The Michigan district schools doubtless possess 
many things common to district schools the country over, but 
they will not show the results of any propaganda in promotion 
of the special modern ideas which are featured in the relatively 
few rural schools about which the public is informed. 

It should be constantly kept in mind that all sorts of rural 
schools in most of the earlier settled agricultural regions have 
worked for many years under the deadening handicap of a de- 
creasing population. The American spirit grows on conquest 
and gets its best expression where accumulating wealth and con- 
centrated population challenge new and progressive ideas. 
These ideas get constructive realization in advanced institutional 
standards; but it must be remembered that many of these new 
standards are, as yet, false standards and impossible of appli- 
cation in communities characterized by decadence in the number 
and, in some cases, in the financial abilities of their citizens. 

The first farm frontier, which inspired men by its wildness, 
its natural splendor, and its challenge to physical conquest has^ 
for the most part, passed away. The second farm fron- 
tier is only just now becoming identified in the public conscious- 
ness. The first was rich in individual satisfactions and easy 
social adjustments; the second promises to be incomparably 
richer in intellectual problems and compelling social necessities. 
Rural life is now somewhere in the wide trough between these 
two high and noble crests of human progress. This is the 
fundamental fact to keep in mind in any present study of the 
facts and institutions of rural life. 



CHAPTER II 
FINANCIAL, COMMUNITY, AND FAMILY DATA 

Division L Financial Conditions 

Census Bureau Tabulations. In seeking to show the relative 
financial abilities and, in so far as it is thus determined, the likeli- 
hood of progressive educational activity of the Ohio and Michi- 
gan communities under comparative study, special tabulations 
of the Thirteenth Federal Census Returns of Agriculture were 
secured. 

In response to an inquiry at the Census Bureau, the follow- 
ing letter was received : 

" Replying to your communication of recent date requesting 
certain tabulations for townships in the State of Michigan and 
State of Ohio, I have the honor to inform you that the prepara- 
tion of special tabulations of this character cannot be confided 
to any one except the clerks of the Census Office, as the rule re- 
quires that the schedules shall not be seen except by the sworn 
employees of this office. We are, however, authorized to make 
special tabulation when it can be done consistently with the 
needs of the work, and charge the cost of preparing the same. 

" I have had an estimate made of the cost of doing the work 
and find it will be about $20. Before we can undertake to do 
the work I must ask you to make a deposit of this sum with 
the Disbursing Clerk of the Bureau, Mr. George Johannes. This 
sum will be held by him until the definite cost of making the 
tabulation has been ascertained and anything over the actual 
cost will be returned to you, together with the required tables." 

The tabulations were promptly made and transmitted with 
this statement: 

" I send you herewith a special tabulation, in typewritten 
form, of the Thirteenth Census Returns of Agriculture, of 
Cooper and Richland townships, Michigan, and Gustavus and 
Kinsman townships, Ohio, which you requested in letter of July 
10. The cost of this special tabulation is $15, and as you have 
deposited $20 with the Disbursing Clerk of the Bureau, $5 of 
that amount is returned herewith." 

There is available by this means an immense accumulation of 

12 



Financial, Community and Family Data 



13 



information following each decennial census, which is capable 

of much significant use in local studies. Data which cannot be 

secured without authority and secrecy may thus be had from the 

Census Bureau in township totals and at an expense which is a 

mere bagatelle compared with the cost of a local house to house 

canvass even if the same facts could be secured for personal or 

institutional uses by other than legally authorized persons, which 

is, of course, impossible. 

Comparable Units Established. Since, as already pointed out, 

the Ohio townships have areas of twenty-five square miles and 

the Michigan township area is thirty-six square miles, the totals 

for each item in the appended tables are presented as obtained 

from the Census Bureau, in township totals and, in parallel 

columns, reduced to percentages or to the common unit of one 

square mile. 

TABLE I 

Nativity and Tenure of Farmers 



Specified 
Inquiries 


Townships Having No 
Village 


Townships Having 
Village 


Michigan 
Cooper 


Ohio 

Gustavus 


Michigan 
Richland 


Ohio 
Kinsman 




Total 


Per ct. 


Total 


Per ct. 


Total 


Per ct. 


Total 


Per ct. 


Native-born 
Operators. . . . 

Foreign-born 
Operators. . . . 

Owners 

Tenants 


170 

25 

151^ 

44 


.87 
.13 
.77 
.23 


146 
12 

128^ 
30 


.92 
.08 
.81 
.19 


152 
21 

124 

49 


.88 
.12 

.72 
.28 


164 

4 

1323 

36 


.98 

.02 
.79 
.21 



^ Includes 5 managers; ^ 4 managers; ^ 1 manager. 

This table shows that tenantry is on an approximately equal 
numerical basis in the areas compared and that no very great 
advantage obtains for either locality in this matter. The tor- 
eign-born operators in the Michigan township without a village 
— ^Cooper, and the like Ohio township, ^Gustavus, are .13 and 
.08, respectively; and in the townships having villages— ^Rich- 

^ Cooper township, in Michigan, and Gustavus township, in Ohio, are 
without villages of any considerable size. 

^Richland township, in Michigan, and Kinsman township, in Ohio, have 
villages by the same names with a population of 278 and 400 respectively. 
(See maps in Appendix B.) 



14 



Two Types of Rural Schools 



land and Kinsman, the percentages are .12 and .02, respectively. 
The further significant fact appears that the number of foreign- 
born operators is larger in townships containing no villages. No 
general conclusion can be drawn, but in these particular areas 
the more accessible farms near villages are more attractive to 
native-born operators. 

TABLE II 

Investment and Mortgage Indebtedness 





Townships Having No Village 


Townships Having Village 


Specified 
Inquiries 


Michigan 
Cooper 


Ohio 
Gustavus 


Michigan 
Richland 


Ohio 
Kinsman 




Total 


Per 

Sq. Mi. 


Total 


Per 

Sq. Mi. 


Total 


Per 

Sq. Mi. 


Total 


Per 
Sq. Mi. 


Value in dollars of 
all buildings and 
improvements, 
but not imple- 
ments and ma- 


1,165,670 
67,676 

122,370 


32,380 
1,889 

3,399 


610,995 
30,051 

54,360 


24,440 
1,202 

2,176 


1,446,460 
50,400 

69,260 


40,179 
1,400 

1,924 


768,590 
20,375 

65,775 


30,744 


Value of all imple- 
ments and ma- 


815 


Amount of mort- 
gage indebted- 
ness, April 15, 
1910 


2,631 







This table indicates that the farmers in Cooper and Richland 
(Michigan) have invested much more heavily in improvements 
and buiJdings than have the farmers of Gustavus and Kinsman 
(Ohio). And Table III, following, shows a much heavier ex- 
penditure for fertilizers in the Ohio than in the Michigan town- 
ships. The mortgage indebtedness is eight and nine per cent of 
the investment in improvements and machinery, except in Rich- 
land, where it is less than five per cent. 

Labor and fertilizers, as stimulants to production, are in 
noticeably disproportionate appreciation in the compared areas. 
The real significance of the expenditure for labor does not ap- 
pear in the naked fact of the amount spent. The relative number 
of adults in the families, the children of working age, and the 
character of the farming activities, together with other factors 
not so evident, demand consideration. The fact that Gustavus 
uses 66 times as much purchased fertilizer per square mile as 
Cooper uses ; and that Kinsman uses 6 times as much per square 



Financial, Community and Family Data 



15 



TABLE III 
Expenditures for Labor and Fertilizers 





Townships Having No 
Village 


Townships Having 
Village 


Specified Inquiries 


Michigan 
Cooper 


Ohio 

Gustavus 


Michigan 
Richland 


Ohio 
Kinsman 




Total 


Per 
Sq. Mi. 


Total 


Per 

Sq.Mi. 

$434 
125 


Total 


Per 

Sq. Mi. 


Total 


Per 

Sq. Mi. 


Amount spent in cash in 
1909 for farm labor 
(exclusive of house 


$19,200 
68 


$533 
1.88 


$10,846 
3.249 


$22,795 
355 


$633 
10 


$14,730 
1,561 


$589 


Amount spent in 1909 
for manure and ferti- 
lizers 


62 







mile as Richland, may be largely explained by the fact that Gus- 
tavus and Kinsman have been farmed a generation longer. The 
difference may turn, however, on an effective campaign by fer- 
tilizer sales agents in the Ohio townships. The maximum use 
of purchased fertilizers will sooner or later be controlled by the 
law of diminishing returns. 



TABLE IV 

Animals and Animal Products 





Townships Having No Village 


Townships Having Village 


Specified 
Inquiries 


Michigan 
Cooper 


Ohio 

Gustavus 


Michigan 
Richland 


Ohio 
Kinsman 


Total 


Per 

Sq. Mi. 


Total 


Per 
Sq. Mi. 


Total 


Per 

Sq. Mi. 


Total 


Per 

Sq. Mi. 


Receipts from all 
animals and an- 
imal products 
sold in 1909 

Domestic animals 
sold alive and 
slaughtered in 
1909 

Sold alive 

Slaughtered on 


$127,308 

75,938 
56,326 

19,612 

2,132 

43,066 

6,172 


$3,536 

2,109 
1,565 

545 

59 

1,196 

171 


$107,540 

43,046 
39,341 

3,705 

888 

56,111 

7,495 


$4,302 

1,722 

1,574 

148 

36 

2,244 

300 


$153,631 

123,491 
122,082 

1,409 

7,391 

13,727 

9,022 


$4,268 

3,430 
3,391 

39 

205 
381 
251 


$118,341 

24,483 
23,039 

1,844 

236 
81,255 
11,967 


$4,734 

995 
922 

74 


Wool and mohair 
(goat hair) shorn 
in 1909 


9 


Dairy products in 
1909 


3 250 


Fowls and eggs sold 
in 1909 


479 







i6 



Two Types of Rural Schools 



The noticeable difference here is that the Michigan townships 
derive the animal products most largely from meat and wool 
while the Ohio townships have developed the dairy and poultry 
industries. Cooper is making a rapid advance in dairy pro- 
ducts. 

TABLE V 
Grain, Vegetable and Fruit Crops 





Townships Having No Village 


Townships Having Village 


Specified 
Inquiries 


Michigan 
Cooper 


Ohio 
Gustavus 


Michigan 
Richland 


Ohio 
Kinsman 


Total 


Per 
Sq. Mi. 


Total 


Per 

Sq. Mi. 


Total 


Per 
Sq. Mi. 


Total 


Per 

Sq. Mi. 


Value of all crops 
including veget- 
ables and fruits 
produced in 1909 


$186,335 


$5,176 


$99,350 


$3,576 


$234,524 


$6,515 


$103,533 


$4,141 



The advantage of the Michigan townships in grain, vegetable 
and fruit crops lies largely in the staple cereals. Richland is 
shown by the State census of 1894 to be the banner wheat grow- 
ing township of Michigan. This high rank in wheat production 
is directly related to Richland's low per cent of mortgage in- 
debtedness. 

Division II. Community Activities 

It may be that much of rural community unity of purpose is 
lost through the absence of any organ suited to the expression 
of many of the particular phases of this purpose. This loss can 
be conjectured in a comparison of communities similar in many 
ways but unlike in the measure of public expressiveness. The 
margin of error in such a conjecture is very difficult, if not im- 
possible, of determination. However, such institutions as do 
exist afford data for comparative studies as far as they go. 

Churches and Fraternities. Religious and fraternal organiza- 
tions are the most usual forms of rural community expression 
in matters more largely of local volition ; and post offices, 
schools, and libraries are the common expressions of federal and 
state initiative as modified by local intelligence. The data for 
schools will be presented fully in the next chapter and this sec- 
tion will deal with the other community expressions. The items 
presented are as reliable as repeated interviews and correspon- 



Financial, Community and Family Data 17 

dence with the officers of the organizations could make them. 
The census figures offer the key to the relative existing condi- 
tions. 

In Table VI, following, the abbreviations are : For churches, 
M. E., Methodist Episcopal; Cong., Congregational; Pres., 
Presbyterian ; Episc, Episcopal ; and M. E. Out, means a country 
church on the Richland circuit ; S. S., Sunday School ; Sub-Org., 
sub-organizations ; Conf . Stud., Conference Studies ; H. S., High 
School; Sem., Seminary; Age in years, means that the institu- 
tions were established the number of years ago stated ; and Area 
refers to the approximate number of square miles from which 
the church attendance is drawn. For fraternities, F. A. M., 
K. O. T. M., and I. O. O. F., are Masons, Macabees, and Odd 
Fellows; and O. E. S., L. O. T. M., and Rebeccas are the 
women's organizations of the orders already designated ; P. 
of H. are Patrons of Husbandry or Grangers. A modicum of 
care in reading will reveal the facts presented in this table. 

This table shows that the townships lost population from 1890 
to 1910 at the rate of 17 per cent in Cooper, 15 per cent in 
Gustavus, 16 per cent in Richland, and 5 per cent in Kinsman; 
and a cursory inspection of the table reveals that in such a 
fundamental institution as the church, a decrease in population 
continued through several decades mitigates against improved 
standards of service and efficiency. Kinsman township, which 
has most nearly maintained itself in population, has the best re- 
cord as to church membership, Sunday School enrollment, phy- 
sical equipment and pastors. The low salary for the minister 
of the Methodist church in Cooper is due to the fact that this 
church is a part of an outside circuit and it has no resident min- 
ister. The exceptional record of Richland in fraternal or- 
ganizations, is explained in part by an annual public fraternity 
banquet which is the most significant social event of the year in 
the township. 



i8 



Two Types of Rural Schools 



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Financial, Community and Family Data 



19 



Post OMces and Libraries. The items regarding post offices, 
in Table VII, following, were obtained from the several post- 
masters (Richland was not given by the postmistress), and some 
of the items are estimates; but the estimates were made by the 
official best qualified to make them. The small areas covered 
and the small number of routes in some townships are due to 
the greater ease of bringing in routes from adjacent towns or 
villages just outside. The facts about the public and school 
libraries are matters of record and were furnished by the 
librarians. The information for the Michigan townships is less 
reliable for the school libraries since the libraries are more nu- 
merous, smaller, and recorded by persons of necessarily less 
library experience. No record is kept of the circulation of these 
small libraries. Reference should be had to the more detailed 
itemization of school libraries in Chapter III, and to Table 
XVIII and comment later in this chapter. 



TABLE VII 

Post Offices and Libraries 



Items 


Townships Having 
No Village 


Townships Having 
Village 


Michigan 
Cooper 


Ohio 
Gustavus 


Michigan 
Richland 


Ohio 
Kinsman 


Post Offices: 
Number. . . 


None 

7 
711 

89 


1 
4 sq. mi. 


60,000 
pieces 

1 
575 
426 
56 




1 
38 sq. mi. 

500,000 
pieces 

Ladies School 
1 6 

1160 427 

1560 

23 69 



2 


Area covered 


75 sq. mi. 

6 

1,000,000 

pieces 

1 


No. rural routes 

Estimated annual mail. 

Libraries: 

Number 


Size in volumes 

Circulation 


1800 
4438 


Additions in year 

Periodicals taken 

Periodicals used 


500 

54 

Month 150 



Social Organizations. Aside from the religious and fraternal 
organizations and their sub-divisions and affiliates, the social 
groups were not identified by names to any mentionable extent 
except in Kinsman where there were — " The Tourist Club," 
" The Bay View Study Club," " The Bona Fida " social club, 



20 



Two Types of Rural Schools 



and the Kinsman Ball Team; and in Richland, where there was 
a Library Club of 54 members and a Thimble Club of 20 mem- 
bers. Richland usually has a lecture course, but there was none 
during the year of this survey. Numerous miscellaneous activi- 
ties, however, such as home talent plays, farmers' institutes, 
public fraternity banquets, school commencements, family oc- 
casions and neighborhood reunions made, each, its social and 
educational contribution to the community vitality. Two other 
activities lend themselves to tabular statement. 

TABLE VIII 
Lecture Courses and Fairs 



Items 


Townships Having 
No Village 


Townships Having 
Village ^■5 


Michigan 
Cooper 


Ohio 
Gustavus 


Michigan 
Richland 


Ohio 
Kinsman 


Lecture Courses: 

No. of entertainments 

Total cost 




5 
$210 

Grange 
October 

200 

$30 

$20 




5 

$325 


Fairs: 

Name 

Date 


Kinsman 
August 
20,000 
$3500 
$3500 


Attendance 

Receipts 

Expenditures 



Nearness to a city is, no doubt, a determining factor in the 
too evident lethargy of the Michigan townships in the fore- 
going respects. The Interstate Fair, in Kalamazoo, is within 
comfortable driving distance of both Cooper and Richland and 
the proximity of Cooper, also, to the considerable village of 
Plainwell and Richland's own village life and accessible city affi- 
liations tend to reduce local initiative. 

Co-operation. Co-operative activity in business, outside of the 
Patrons of Husbandry, was very local and inconsiderable. Two 
business organizations of a co-operative nature and of note- 
worthy size and success were found. The Farmers' Telephone 
Association of Gustavus had 66 members and after six years of 
satisfactory service was in excellent condition. The Dairyman's 



Financial, Community and Family Data 21 

Milk Company of Cooper has been in successful operation for 
five years. There are at present 91 stockholders. 

In the Ohio townships, the school carryalls and the picnic din- 
ners of all the children together, or in groups, at noon, are 
clearing centers of social interest and information. It is certain 
that the consolidated school multiplies in the foregoing respect 
the social service of the one-room school. 

Division III. Family Survey 

Method and Scope. The most strenuous part of this inves- 
tigation was the house to house family survey. The family, 
not the township nor the semi-public or wholly public organiza- 
tion, is the unit of measure here used. In Gustavus, all families 
but one were canvassed. The home not visited was closed to 
visitors by the very serious illness of a member. In Kinsman, 
twelve families were omitted by reason of absence from home, 
sickness, and refusal to give time to answer the questions. In 
Cooper and Richland, all the homes visited were successfully can- 
vassed except in one or two cases where there were refusals to 
answer particular queries. In these townships only a sufficient 
number of homes were surveyed to afford a proper basis of com- 
parison with the Ohio townships ; but the areas covered exceeded 
in both cases the areas of the Ohio townships, and all the homes 
in the surveyed areas were visited. 

A straightforward explanation of what was wanted and a 
courteous request for it, together with the statement of the pur- 
pose for which the information w^as to be used and that in no 
case would items keep their personal identification, in almost 
every case secured candid and complete answers to the questions 
asked. Record was also kept, in each case, of impressions 
gained by observation at the time of the visit. 

Age and Children. The median age of heads of families, as 
shown in Table IX, is significant as an index of the desertion 
of the farms by young people. And the close relation of this 
fact to the large number of homes without children and the 
additional fact that the median number of children in families 
having children is only two, is obvious. Thirty-one per cent of 
the families have no children ; 24 per cent have one child ; 19 per 



22 



Two Types of Rural Schools 



cent have two children; ii per cent have three children; 6 per 
cent have four children; and 9 per cent have five or more 
children. 

TABLE IX 
Family Enumerations 



Itkms 


Sub-Items 


Heads of 
















Families: 


Total No. 


Men 


Women 










Cooper . . 


192 


183 


9 










Gustavus. . 


164 


155 


9 










Richland . . 


227 


207 


20 










Kinsman . . 


255 


232 


23 












Per Cent 


Per Cent 


Per Cent 


Per Cent 


Maximum 


Median 






Under 30 


from 30 


from 40 


Over 50 


Age 


Age 




Age of Heads; 


Years 


to 40 yrs. 


to 50 yrs. 


Years 


in Years 


m Years 




Cooper. . . . 


.09 


.23 


.26 


.42 


92 


47 




Gustavus. . 


.07 


.27 


.25 


.36 


89 


48 




Richland . . 


.11 


.20 


.23 


.46 


82 


49 




Kinsman . . 


.09 


.24 


.22 


.45 


88 


49 






Per Cent 


Per Cent 


Per Cent 


Per Cent 


Per Cent 


Per Cent 


Maximum 




of Homes 


of Homes 


of Homes 


of Homes 


of Homes 


of Homes 


Number 




Having 


Having 


Having 


Having 


Having 


Having 


in Any 


Adults: 


None 


One 


Two 


Three 


Four 


More 


Home 


Cooper 




.06 


.68 


.18 


.06 


.02 


6 


Gustavus. . 




.05 


.67 


.22 


.05 


.02 


5 


Richland . . 




.07 


.65 


.20 


.08 


.01 


5 


Kinsman . . 




.04 


.74 


.13 


.07 


.02 


8 


Employees: 
















Cooper. . . . 


.79 


.16 


.03 






.02 


5 


Gustavus . . 


.06 


.75 


.17 






.02 


4 


Richland . . 


.77 


.17 


.05 






.01 


3 


Kinsman . . 


.04 


.83 


.10 






.03 


6 


ChUdren: 
















Cooper .... 


.42 


.20 


.16 


.09 


.06 


.07 


7 


Gustavus. . 


.15 


.30 


.24 


.14 


.07 


.10 


10 


Richland . . 


.39 


.26 


.14 


.10 


.04 


.07 


7 


Kinsman . . 


.27 


.24 


.21 


.13 


.07 


.08 


10 



Distance from School. Table X reads as follows : The dis- 
tance from school of fifty per cent of the families of Cooper 
was less than one mile; of 17 per cent of the families, it was 
more than one mile and less than a mile and one-quarter; of 10 
per cent of the families, it was more than a mile and one-quarter 
and less than a mile and one-half; and so on, concluding with: 
the maximum distance of families from school was two and one- 
half miles, and the average distance of the homes of Cooper 
from the schools of Cooper was nine-tenths of a mile. The 
tabulation showing distances of homes from their trading point 
is read in a similar manner. 

The significance of travel after it has become mere routine, 



Financial, Community and Family Data 



23 



as a wasteful consumer of time and energy, is too little appre- 
ciated. Distance is the one persistent financial handicap of the 
country school; and consolidation, as shown in the townships 
of Gustavus and Kinsman, more than doubles this handicap of 
distance, a fact which introduces a cost item for transportation, 
a new item in country school expenditures. 



TABLE X 

Necessary Travel 



Items 

Distance from School of 
Percentages of Families: 

Cooper 

Gustavus 

Richland 

Kinsman 

Distance from Trading 
Point: 

Cooper 

Gustavus 

Richland 

Kinsman 











Miles 








T.es8 


















than 


1-1 i 


14- 


1*- 


If- 


2-3 


3-4 


4 and 


Maxi- 


one 




H 


11 


2 






More 


mum 


.50 


.17 


.10 


.12i 


.06 


.05 






24 


.23 


.06 


.01 


.09 


.02 


.26 


.25 


.09 


5 


.65 


.12 


.05 


.10 


.02 


.05 


.01 




3 


.37 


.06 


.03 


.16 


.01 


.19 


.11 


.09 


6 


Less 


















than 


1-2 


2-3 


3-4 


4-5 


5-6 


6-7 


7 and 


Maxi- 


one 














More 


mum 




.005 


.05 


.16 


.19 


.14 


.21 


.23 


10 


.31 


.23 


.20 


.13 


.05 


.006 






5 


.31 


.11 


.13 


.12 


.04 


.04 


.07 


.06 


9 


.36 


.14 


.17 


.16 


.06 


.02 






5 



Aver- 
age 
.9 

2^ 



Aver- 
age 
5.4 
1.5 
3.2 
1.8 



Trading Point. Distance from trading point is somewhat less 
significant than it w^as before the establishment of the rural mail 
and telephone service. However, the annihilation of distance in 
respect to country trading by telephone and mail is only half ac- 
complished. The present facilities, plus an adequate parcels 
post regulation, would very largely solve the problem. It seems 
clearly evident that any antagonistic interests, which may be at 
present successful in defeating the inauguration of the parcels 
post, are standing hard by the judgment seat of progress. 

School Service. The following table. Table XI, reads that 
in Cooper township 176 heads of families said that the school 
service was satisfactory; 16 said it was not; 15 made remarks 
(unsolicited), and, in so far as the interviewer could give a 
definite point to these remarks, eight complained of incompetent 
teachers and one of the distance to the school-house. The num- 
bers opposite the quoted remarks are the numbers which ap- 
peared, in the original data, opposite the names of the indi- 
viduals making the remarks. 



24 



Tzvo Types of Rural Schools 



TABLE XI 

School Service 



Itkms 



Expression of Heads of 
Families: 

Cooper 

Gustavus 

Richland 

Kinsman 

Cooper 



Gustavus , 



Richland , 



Kinsman 



Satisfactory? 




Objections 










Incom- 










Yes 


No 


Re- 


petent 


Dis- 


Cost 


Vans 


Dis- 






marks 


Teachers 


tance 






ease 


176 


16 


15 


8 


1 








144 


11 


22 






5 


5 


4 


183 


44 


25 


15 


1 








215 


25 


39 




2 


15 


19 


1 



No. 



Mor- 
als 
1 

1 
3 



Quoted Remarks 



97 " Personal objection to teacher." 

35 " Same man holds office of director without re-elec- 

tion." 

134 " No officer elected at last annual school meeting — 
director, a Dutchman who could scarcely speak 
English, hires same teacher year after year." 

122 " Prefer central school." 

36 " Teacher allowed boys to insult daughter." 

170 " Irregular time." 

173 " Indifference of people." 

1 " Objects to Catholic teacher." 

20 " Very much pleased." 

29 " Very much pleased." 

49 " Great improvement." 

58 " Prof, bosses everything, runs whole school — Board 

has no backbone." 

89 " Only solution of rural conditions." 

47 " Perfectly." 

24 " Too frequent change." 

51 " Schools should be equal to home." 

63 " Too much one man." 

122 " Cross railroads twice." 

153 " Too much cramming." 

171 " Good. Street behavior better." 

172 " Good." 

179 " Object to curriculum." 

180 " Very unsatisfactory in curriculum." 
183 " General tone is disrespectful." 

32 " Too early and late." 

33 " Wastes too much time — distance." 

63 " Too far — no comforts in cold weather." 

200 " Too many renters who get their children hauled 

free while others have to pay for it." 

215 " Riding, hard on frail children." 



Church Situation. Table XII shows that, in Cooper, 44 per 
cent of the heads of families were members of the church; in 
Gustavus, 64 per cent were members; in Richland, 51 per cent 
were members ; in Kinsman, 73 per cent were members. Again, 
Cooper has 47 per cent of its membership in regular attendance ; 
Gustavus has 49 per cent ; Richland has 48 per cent ; and Kins- 
man has 67 per cent. The abbreviations used here, and not al- 
ready explained in connection with Table VI, are: Non, non- 
members; Bapt., Baptist; Disc, Disciples; Luth., Lutheran; 
Ref., Reformed; Cath., Catholic. 



Financial, Community and Family Data 



25 



TABLE XII 
Church Membership, Distribution, and Activity 



Items 

Membership: 

Cooper 

Gustavus 

Richland 

Kinsman 

Attendance: 

Cooper 

Gustavus 

Richland 

Kinsman 

Sunday School At- 
tendance: 

Cooper 

Gustavus 

Richland 

Kinsman 



Total 


c 



H 


i 





i 


5 


d 


3 


^. 


J3 




^ 


S 


Q-i 


Q 


« 


w 


P 




Ph 


6 


85 44% 


107 


18 




32 


11 




2 


4 


7 


7 


104 64% 


58 


52 


2 


29 


3 




7 


1 




1 


116 51% 


111 


38 


58 


2 


5 


1 




6 


1 


7 


186 73% 


67 


76 


72 


1 


7 


5 


8 


4 




3 



Members 



Regular 
40 47% 
51 49% 
56 48% 
126 67% 



29 
58 
53 

125 



Irregular 
32 
50 
22 

5S 



None 
13 
3 
10 

2 



Non-Members 



Regular 
9 
1 
3 
1 



Irregular 

44 

4 
38 

5 



None 

54 18% 
53 32% 
39 13% 
61 24% 



The importance of the church in country community life is 
oftentimes out of all proportion to the numerical strength of 
its membership or the number regularly found in its congrega- 
tions. Very frequently the church affords the best audience- 
room in the community and if it is equipped for social service 
by a kitchen and dining-room adequately furnished, it becomes 
doubly valuable as a community asset, irrespective of its great 
primary purpose. Table XII suggests that church work might 
gain definiteness in attack and in recognition of tangible results, 
by a co-operative analysis of the congregations and surveys for 
a few facts about every human inhabitant of the territory tribu- 
tary to the interested churches. 



26 



Tzvo Types of Rural Schools 



TABLE XIII 

Fraternity Membership and Distribution 



Items 



Membership: 
Cooper. . . 
Gustavus. 
Richland . 
Kinsman . 



Distribution: 
Cooper . . . . 
Gustavus. . 
Richland . . 
Kinsman . . 



Total 



98 51% 

79 48% 

107 47% 

109 43% 



None 


One 


Two 


Three 


Four 


94 


46 


31 


17 


4 


85 


58 


13 


6 


2 


120 


54 


30 


15 


7 


144 


67 


81 


7 


3 



More 













< 












1^ 
d 


d 
d 




1^ 










P^ 
C 




i 




5 




30 


34 


8 


1 


1 


2 


35 


3 


3 


4 




10 




6 


3 


1 


1 


47 




2 


23 


15 


29 


20 


7 


4 


4 




41 


9 


15 


15 




34 


2 


15 


3 


2 


8 


6 





Fraternities. The foregoing table reads as follows : Of 192 
persons interviewed in Cooper, 98, or 51 per cent, claimed mem- 
bership in one or more fraternities ; 94 had no such member- 
ship; 46 belonged to one fraternity only; 31 to two; 17 to three; 
4 to four; and none to more than four. In the distribution, 
Cooper had 2y Maccabees, no Lady Maccabees, 5 Odd Fellows, 
no Rebeccas, 30 Masons, 34 Eastern Stars, 8 Modern Woodmen 
of America, one Knight of Pythias, one Elk, two Grand Army 
men, 35 Grangers, three Gleaners, and 17 belonging to other 
fraternities not named. 

The service of a fraternity to the community in which it is 
organized may be economical, recreative, and stimulating to the 
best human impulses ; again it may be wasteful, dissipating, and 
degrading to its membership. To what extent the fraternities 
recorded in Table XIII fulfill the high purposes which they pro- 
fess, mere figures can not show. A well officered and loyally 





TABLE XIV 
Insurance Data 






Number Carrying 
Insurance : 


Fire 
Total Perct. 


Life 
Total Perot. 


Both 
Total Perct. 


Neither 
Total Perot. 


Cooper 


159 .83 
126 .77 
190 .84 
212 .84 


71 .37 

58 .36 

81 .36 

126 . 50 


61 .32 

46 .28 

74 .33 

113 .44 


23 12 


Gustavus 

Richland 

Kinsman 


25 .15 
30 . 13 
28 .11 



Financial, Community and Family Data 



27 



supported fraternity, in a rural community, seems likely to 
render a large service, since it adds one more center for whole- 
some associations and thus breaks up part of the still too large 
fallow field in rural social life. 

Insurance and Business. Table XIV and Table XV give 
some notion of the economic alertness of the farmers in the 
four townships under survey. Table XIV reads : Of 192 heads 
of families interviewed in Cooper, 159, or 83 per cent carried 
fire insurance; 71, or 37 per cent, carried life insurance; 61, or 
32 per cent, carried both fire and life insurance; and 2^, or 12 
per cent, carried neither fire nor life insurance. Table XV, 
showing the use of the mail for buying or selling, is read in a 
similar manner. 

TABLE XV 
Business Use of Mail 



Number Using Mail 

Cooper 

Gustavus 

Richland 

Kinsman 



Buying 
Total Perct. 



57 

98 

69 

137 



30 
60 
30 
54 



Selling 
Total Perct. 



10 .05 

32 .28 

4 .02 

41 .16 



Both 
Total Perct. 



Neither 
Total Perct. 



8 
23 
18 
35 



.04 
.14 
.07 
.14 



133 

57 
141 
108 



.69 
.34 

.62 

.42 



Telephone Service. Table XVI, following, suggests the un- 
exhausted possibilities of telephone service, in the areas being 
considered, both in the expansion of the service and in its syste- 
matic and economical management. Maximum telephone usage, 
like other phases of progress in country life, advances by the 



TABLE XVI 

Telephone Service 



Telephones: 


Number 
Having None 
Total Perct. 


Num- 
ber 

Having 
One 


Num- 
ber 

Having 
Two 


Most 
Fre- 
quent 
Rate 


Maxi- 
mum 
Rate 


Mini- 
mum 
Rate 


Cooper 

Gustavus 

Richland 

Kinsman 


82 .43 

40 .24 

135 . 59 

96 .33 


110 

124 

90 

159 


6 
8 
2 
4 


$18.00 
15.00 
15.00 
15.00 


$18.00 
18.00 
20.00 
20.00 


$3.00 
4.00 
6.00 
4.00 



2S 



Two Types of Rural Schools 



compulsion of necessity and by an honest adjustment of the 
economic possibiHties of the situation. 

Personal Affiliations. The items in Table XVII identify, to 
the extent of location, the most personal and familiar and, no 
doubt, in the cases of many individuals, the most influential 
social affiliations of the country homes here represented. The 
table reads that, in Cooper township, the visiting of 44 per cent 
of the families was done mostly in the country; 33 per cent 
of the families visited more in the city ; and 23 per cent visited 
equally in the city and the country. In Gustavus, 2 per cent of 
the families reported doing no visiting. The items for corre- 
spondence are read in the same way. 



TABLE XVII 
Visiting and Correspondence 



Visiting: 

Cooper 

Gustavus. . . 
Richland. . . 
Kinsman. . . 

Corresponding 
Cooper 

Gustavus. . . 
Richland. . . 
Kinsman. . . 



Country 


City 


Equal 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Per cent 


44 


33 


23 


70 


26 


2 


37 


24 


38 


64 


24 


9 


22 


36i 


42 


46 


47 


7 


20 


32 


47 


35* 


51 


13 









None 
Per cent 



Home and Public Libraries. The ownership and use of books 
in farm homes is, possibly, less important since the day of rural 
free delivery of mail has brought newspapers and various periodi- 
cals to easy accessibility. The school libraries and various other 
forms of public libraries have also reduced the necessity of the 
ownership of books by farmers. The statistics presented in the 
following table establish the numerical situation as to books in 
the farm homes visited. The table reads : In Cooper, 2 per 
cent of the families reported having no books ; 43 per cent re- 
ported less than 50 volumes; 26 per cent, between 50 and 100 
volumes; 15 per cent, between 100 and 150; 5 per cent, between 
150 and 200; 4 per cent, between 200 and 300; 2 per cent, be- 



Financial, Community and Family Data 



29 



tween 300 and 400; none, between 400 and 500; and 3 per cent 
reported having 500 and more volumes ; the maximum number 
of volumes owned was 553; and the total number of volumes 
owned in the farm homes of the township was 13,899. The 
items for the number of families purchasing books during the 
year and the number using the books in the public library, are 
read in a similar manner. 



TABLE XVIII 

Ownership and Use of Books 



Items 






Sub-Items 






Home Libraries: 


Not 


Less 


50 


100 


150 


200 


300 


400 


500 


Maxi. 


Total 


Percentage of 


any 


than 


to 


to 


to 


to 


to 


to 


and 


No. of 


No. of 


Homes Having 


Books 


50 


100 


150 


200 


300 


400 


500 


More 


Vols. 


Vols. 


Cooper 


.02 


.43 


.26 


.15 


.05 


.04 


.02 




.03 


553 


13,899 


Gustavus . . . 


.07 


.37 


.26 


.13 


.05 


.06 


.03 


.01 


.02 


1000 


13.842 


Richland . . . 


.02 


.36 


.21 


.15 


.08 


.10 


.04 


.01 


.03 


1000 


23,342 


* Kinsman . . . 


.07 


.32 


.20 


.18 


.06 


.08 


.03 


.02 


.04 


2000 


25,912 
















Total 
















No. of 


Percentage 












Maximum 


Vols. 


Adding Books 












No. of Vols. 


Pur- 


in Year 


None 


5 or Less 


5-10 


10-20 


Over 20 


Purchased 


chased 


Cooper 


..53 


.31 


.07 


.07 


.02 


52 


552 


Gustavus. . . 


.65 


.18 


.09 


.06 


.02 


23 


363 


Richland . . . 


.38 


.30 


.20 


.10 


.02 


30 


1072 


2 Kinsman . . . 


.69 


.15 


.06 


.07 


.03 


50 


679 
















Maxi. 
















No. 


Public Library: 














Used 


Percentage 














m 


Using Books 


None 


Less than 5 


5-10 




10-20 


20-50 


50 and More 


Home 


Cooper 


.76 


.04 


.03 




.09 


.06 


.02 


52 


Gustavus. . . 


.50 


.20 


.19 


.08 


.01 


.02 


150 


Richland . . . 


.57 


.05 


.07 


.04 


.17 


.10 


104 


8 Kinsman . . . 


.47 


.06 


.09 


.11 


.14 


.13 


156 



1 26 gave no estimate; ^ 9 gave no estimate; ^ 15 gave no estimate. 

Library Administration. Two facts about the service of these 
public libraries stand out in the foregoing table. One is the 
great advantage of the library large enough to have a librarian 
over the small school library with only incidental administration. 
Table VII shows that there are 711 volumes in the school 
libraries of Cooper and 575 volumes in Gustavus, whereas the 
use of such books is about three times as great in Gustavus. 
The facility for circulating the books in Gustavus, by use of the 
school vans, is utilized and there is enough circulation set up to 



30 Two Types of Rural Schools 

keep the current flov/ing; whereas, although the children afford 
equal facility for getting books from the small school libraries 
of Cooper out to the homes, the circulation seems to be too 
feeble to start a noticeable current. It should be further noted 
that practically all of the 575 volumes of the Gustavus library 
are different books and all are available for every citizen of the 
township; while the seven small libraries of Cooper township, 
with their total of 711 volumes, contain many of the same titles 
in this total and each citizen has available for his use only the 
number of books contained in his small district library. 

The second noticeable feature of this table is that in Kins- 
man, where a splendid library has been developed by years of 
care and where there is general public knowledge of this fact, 
the heads of families interviewed were most sensitive on the 
questions about books. An inspection enough in detail to deter- 
mine what percentage of home-owned books are really worthy 
of the name, shows, in many homes, a library selected in closer 
relation to the zeal and success of itinerant book agents than to 
the value of the book or the interests of the family. However, 
a few home libraries, looked over somewhat in particular, of- 
fered some evidence that present-day means of communication 
forestall the agent to the extent of introducing a larger factor 
of premeditation by the prospective purchaser. 

Current Publications. In Table XIX, the data relative to 
newspapers, farm papers, and magazines are very nearly cor- 
rect. The questions as to the number of state and federal bulle- 
tins, though always asked in the same way, i.e., " How many 
have you received in the past year?" seems to have been an- 
swered, in some cases, as if the question were " How many have 
you read in the past year? " If correct answers to both of these 
questions could be secured, the suggestion of this study is that 
a wide margin would appear between the total number of 
bulletins received and the total number read. The indefiniteness 
of the answers given in the homes indicates that the whole 
matter of free bulletins is not yet taken very seriously in the 
townships canvassed, except in cases of farm specialization and 
where agricultural intelligence has felt the stimulus of school 
or extension education bearing directly upon it. The item in 
regard to " Circulating Reading Matter " was hard to get, be- 



Financial, Community and Family Data 



31 



cause the words in just that combination were not in the vocabu- 
laries of most of the people interviewed, except in Kinsman 
where there is, in connection with the public library, a well sys- 
tematized scheme for the circulation of the 54 (see Table VII) 
periodicals taken. 

TABLE XIX 
Number and Distribution of Current Publications Taken 



Items 


Percentage not Taking 
Any 


Maximum No. 
Taken 


Median No. 
Taken 


Publications of 
All Kinds: 

Cooper 

Gustavus 

Richland 

Kinsman 


.03 
.02 
.04 
.03 


49 
30 
61 
30 


5 
6 
5 

7 


Newspapers : 

Cooper 

Gustavus 

Richland 

Kinsman 

Farm Papers: 

Cooper 

Gustavus 

Richland 

Kinsman 

Magazines : 

Cooper 

Gustavus 

Richland 

Kinsman 

State Bulletins: 

Cooper 

Gustavus 

Richland 

Kinsman 

Fed. Bulletins: 

Cooper 

Gustavus 

Richland 

Kinsman 

Circulating Read- 
ing: 

Cooper 

Gustavus 

Richland 

Kinsman 


None 


One 


Two 


Three 


Four 


More 


Maxi. 


.03 
.05 
.07 
.03 

.27 
.28 
.36 
.37 

.35 
.36 
.29 
.34 

.70 
.49 
.61 
.64 

.84 
.89 
.69 
.92 

.99 

.99 

1.00 

.88 


.41 
.27 
.47 
.15 

.32 
.33 
.33 

.26 

.23 
.20 
.37 
.19 

.04 
.24 
.14 
.14 

.01 
.08 
.12 
.07 

.02 


.34 
.31 
.23 
.23 

.20 
.25 
.16 

.22 

.14 
.14 
.12 
.20 

.03 
.25 
.03 
.21 

.03 
.02 
.01 
.01 

.01 
.01 


.17 
.23 
.13 
.18 

.14 
.08 
.09 
.08 

.11 
.10 
.11 
.12 

.03 
.01 
.02 
.01 

.03 
.01 
.03 

.01 


.05 
.10 
.06 
.17 

.05 
.02 
.03 
.08 

.08 
.06 
.04 
.07 

.05 
.01 
.20 

.01 
.01 

.01 


.04 
.03 
.14 

.02 
.04 
.03 
.03 

.09 
.14 
.07 
.08 

.15 

.08 
.14 

01 
.07 


4 
8 
6 
9 

6 

8 

6 

20 

8 
11 
10 

8 

24 

4 
4 
3 

35 

3 

24 

2 

2 
5 

20 



32 



Ttvo Types of Rural Schools 



Oifices Held. Table XX, following, shows the percentage of 
farm homes represented in offices of the various organizations 
of the community. Families in which members hold one or 
more offices in a local public or semi-public organization will, in 
all probability, enjoy a more varied social intercourse within the 
home as well as outside of it. The relation of variety of social 
interest and social participation to relaxation and recuperation 
from the daily round of compulsory routine in rural life, is vital 
to just the extent that it enhances daily joy and multiplies cur- 
rent satisfaction. 

TABLE XX 

Offices in Organizations 



Offices Held by 
Members of 
Family : 

Cooper 

Gustavus 

Richland 

Kinsman 



Per ct. 


Per ct. 


Per ct. 


Per ct. 


Per ct. 


Per ct. 


Holding 


Holding 


Holding 


Holding 


Holding 


Holding 


None 


One 


Two 


Three 


Four 


More 


.77 


.14 


.02 


.03 


.01 


.03 


.68 


.15 


.07 


.02 


.04 


.04 


.71 


.16 


.05 


.05 


.01 


.02 


.74 


.15 


.05 


.03 


.01 


.02 



Maxi. 
No. in 
Home 



Conveniences. In Table XXI, the item " Modern Machinery " 
is comparable between Cooper and Richland and between Gus- 
tavus and Kinsman. The survey of the ^iichigan townships 
was made after the Ohio townships had been completed and it 
was found necessary to put much more emphasis on the ques- 
tion of modern conveniences to get at the facts at all ade- 
quately. The other six items in this table present a summary 
of the answers of heads of families to direct inquiries and 
should be correct for the number of homes visited. The as- 
sessed valuation of Cooper township, in 191 1, was $585,570, a 
per capita property of $642; while the assessed valuation of 
Richland township, in 191 1, was v$i,078,005, a per capita prop- 
erty of $1130. These figures help to an understanding of the 
advantage of Richland in house conveniences. The presence of 
a village in Richland does not materially affect the comparison 
as to house conveniences, since there are proportionately as many 
conveniences in the country as in the village homes. The per 
capita property of Gustavus township, as based on the levy of 



Financial, Community and Family Data 



33 



1910, was $672; and the per capita of Kinsman, figured on the 
same basis, was $737. 

TABLE XXI 
Modern Conveniences 





Townships Having 
No Village 


Townships Having 
Village 


Percentage of Homes 
Having: 


Michigan 
Cooper 


Ohio 

Gustavus 


Michigan 
Richland 


Ohio 

Eansman 


Modem Machinery 

Water in House 

Bath-room 


.30 
.18 
.04 
.06 
.08 
.01 
.02 


.01 
.02 
.01 
.01 

.01 


.29 
.17 
.11 
.21 
.12 

.04 


.05 

.09 
05 


Lighting System 

Furnace 

Steam Heat. 


.13 
.01 
02 


Automobiles 


.01 



Improvements. Table XXII, like the preceding one, offers 
safe comparisons between Cooper and Richland, and between 
Gustavus and Kinsman. The Michigan townships were can- 
vassed later and, in the item of simple improvements in pro- 
gress, the survey was more thorough. Extensive improvements, 
such as new buildings, were, of course, obvious in both areas and 
subjects of easy record. 

TABLE XXII 
Current Improvements 



Kind 


Townships Having 
no Village 


Townships Having 
Village 


Michigan 
Cooper 


Ohio 
Gustavus 


Michigan 
Richland 


Ohio 
Kinsman 


Percentage Making Simple 
Improvements 


.15 
.07 


.01 
.06 


.18 
.06 


.03 


Percentage Making Exten- 
sive Improvements .... 


.04 



Ranking the Homes, Table XXIII presents items having the 
value of special observation, but not substantiated by very close 
scrutiny. The advantage of Richland and Kinsman is no doubt 
partly accounted for by the economic status. As stated under 
Table XXI, the per capita property in Richland is $1130 vs. 



34 



Two Types of Rural Schools 



$642 in Cooper ; and in Kinsman, the assessed valuation, in 1910, 
was $927,770, a per capita property of $737 vs. an assessed 
valuation of $515,701, a per capita property of $672, in Gus- 
tavus. 

TABLE XXIII 
General Impression Given by Premises 



Rank 


Townships Having 
no Village 


Townships Having 

VtTjT<\GE 


Michigan 
Cooper 


Ohio 
Gustavus 


Michigan 
Richland 


Ohio 
Kinsman 


Excellent 


Per cent 

9 

60 

20 

11 


Per cent 
10 
37 
40 
13 


Per cent 
16 
49 
24 
11 


Per cent 

28 


Good 


36 


Fair 


26 


Poor 


10 







Family Items Distributed. In concluding this chapter, tabula- 
tions of a complete distribution of the family items for groups 
of owners and renters are presented. The first purpose of this 
distribution is to complete the explanation, by an illustration of 
this somewhat lengthy family survey; and the second purpose 
is to afford a basis of comparison, in small numbers, between 
owners and renters in the particulars under review. 

Each group is made up of sixty heads of families. The 
owners, who appear by number in this tabulation, were selected 
by taking the first two owners who were interviewed, in each 
group of thirty throughout the four townships; and likewise, 
the sixty renters were selected by taking the first two renters in 
each successive group of thirty heads of families visited in 
the four townships. To complete the total of sixty desired, the 
last two or three names in each township were added. Abbre- 
viations are chiefly initials and subject to easy interpretation. 
Many modem machines and domestic conveniences are not men- 
tioned ; only those which seem to mark the present advance line 
are noted. 

In the following tables, it should be understood that heads 
of families were not asked to make remarks about the school, 
further than to answer the question " Is your school service 
satisfactory ? " Such remarks as were made, and that are tabu- 



Financial, Community and Family Data 35 

lated, were purely voluntary. By social organization, an asso- 
ciation for purely social purposes was indicated. The localities 
under survey make little organized use of leisure. Under cur- 
rent improvements, " Simple " means merely incidental repairs 
to offset natural wear and tear ; and " Extensive " means new 
buildings, rebuilding, and grading. Where extensive improve- 
ments are in progress on rented farms, it is to be understood 
that such improvements are to be credited to the non-resident 
owners of these farms, not to the renters. 



36 



Two Types of Rural Schools 





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Financial, Community and Family Data 



37 



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38 



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39 



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40 



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42 



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44 



Two Types of Rural Schools 



Distributions Summarized. The foregoing tables present in 
detail the facts about two random samplings of owners and 
renters. Table XXVI presents the summaries of these facts, in 
so far as the several items lend themselves to significant state- 
ment in summary. 

TABLE XXVI 
Relative Facts About Owners and Renters Summarized 



Items, 

Median age of heads of fam 
ilies 

Median No. adults in homes 

No. homes without children . 

Median No. children 

Median distance from school. 

Median distance from trad- 
ing point 

No. dissatisfied with school. . 

Homes represented in church 
membership 

Homes represented in church 
attendance 

Homes represented in Sun 
day school membership . . 

Homes represented in Sun 
day school attendance. . . 

Homes represented in frater- 
nities 

No. carrying no insurance 

No. carrying fire ins. only , 

No. carrying life ins. only. 

No. carrying both 

Homes represented in social 
organizations 

Homes represented in some 
extension course .... 

Homes represented in co- 
operative organizations 

Homes without telephone 
service 

Median cost of telephone. 

No. using mail for buying or 
selling produce 



Own- 


Rent- 


ers 


ers 


49 
2 

58% 

limi. 


38 

2 
33% 

I mi. 


2imi. 
15% 


2-^ mi, 

5% 


60% 


60% 


68% 


71% 


55% 


43% 


56% 


48% 


43% 

8% 

55% 

3^1 


38% 

38% 
25% 
15% 
21% 


10% 


5% 


20% 


3% 


10% 


1% 


43% 

$15 


"lit 


37% 


53% 



Items 

Median No. books owned.. . . 
Median No. books purchased 

past year 

Homes making use of librarj^ 
Median No. Library books 

used 

Visiting mostly in country. . . 

Visiting mostly in city 

Corresponding mostly in 

country 

Corresponding mostly in 

city 

Median No. newspapers 

taken 

No. taking magazines 

Median No. magazines 

No. taking farm papers 

Median No. farm papers .... 
No. taking government bvil- 

letins 

Median No. bulletins 

No. taking circulating read- 
ing 

Homes represented in offices 

of various organizations. . 
Homes having modern con 

veniences 

No. making improvements: 

a. Simple (repairs) 

b. Extensive (building) . . 
Median general impression. 



Own- 


Rent- 


ers 


ers 


50 


45 


6 

40% 


43% 


l?l 


10 

63% 
20% 


30% 


36% 


43% 


36% 


2 
65% 

2 
60% 


2 

56% 

43% 


70% 
6 


16% 


5% 


1% 


26% 


15% 


36% 


23% 


20% 

8% 

Good 


6% 
8% 
Fair 



Items of Comparison. In the foregoing table, the first item 
shows that the median age of the sampling of owners was 49 
years ; of the sampling of renters, the median age was 38 years. 
This is very significant in relation to such following facts as: 
per cent of homes having no children, number dissatisfied with 
school, the ownership and purchase of books and the use of 
public libraries, the location of the visiting and correspondence 
of the families, the reading of current publications, and the 
number of homes represented in the offices of various organiza- 
tions. The tenure of renters, a fact not learned by this survey, 
would no doubt be veiy useful in explaining some of the par- 



Financial, Community and Family Data 45 

ticular differences between owners and renters. To what ex- 
tent the present owners have been renters; to what extent the 
present renters have risen from the ranks of farm laborers ; and 
to what extent present renters were already owners in fact and 
in intention — these items, if learned, would lend much additional 
significance to what has been presented. 

However, since the owners are approximately seventy-seven 
per cent of the population of the townships surveyed, and are 
conceded to be much more permanent in their tenure and, by the 
fact of ownership, are likely to be much more vitally interested 
in taxation and in the effectiveness of local institutions, it is 
safe to look to the statistics of owners for the community stand- 
ards in the items concerning which inquiry was made. In mat- 
ters such as, for example, the percentage of attendance at 
church, the use of the mail in buying and selling, and the use of 
library books, in which the renters had better standards than 
the owners in these particular localities, it cannot be doubted 
that the renters prove a spur rather than a handicap in the 
improvement of personal and community standards. 

In concluding this chapter, it may be well to expand the 
statement of the introduction — that the second chapter will pre- 
sent economic, institutional and family data in detail with only 
explanatory discussion. This has been the plan and purpose of 
the chapter; but there has been also the general purpose of es- 
tablishing a setting, or perspective, for the next chapter which 
is an inquiry in detail into the significant phases of the existing 
school situation in the same communities. It has been the func- 
tion of this chapter to present facts showing: 

1. The relative economic resources of the compared areas. 

2. The relative standing, at present, of common community 
activities in the contrasted townships. 

3. The relative well-being of the homes in the several lo- 
calities, together with a differentiation of owners and renters in 
this respect. 



CHAPTER III 
SCHOOL STATUS 

Available Records 

In an attempt to measure the exact school status in detail 
for the academic year of 1910-1911, recourse was had to the 
teachers' records on file in the districts, to the proceedings of the 
annual school meetings, to the reports of the district boards, to 
the State Departments of Public Instruction, and to personal in- 
spections of physical equipments and interviews with officers, 
teachers, parents and children. 

Personal Co-operation. At least one teacher in each of the 
districts studied has made a personal contribution of care and 
time to aid in accumulating the data presented in the follow- 
ing pages. In each of the four Ohio consolidated districts, a 
resident teacher, who had been for several years familiar with 
local conditions, was employed; and in Michigan the County 
Commissioner of Schools was a very generous contributor of 
everything in his power to make the investigation thorough. The 
personal part required nearly a month of working early and 
late in Ohio, and a much longer time in Michigan. Any one who 
undertakes a work like this will be sufficiently impressed with 
the very great advantage of " Consolidated " school records. 

In none of the localities studied was there sufficiently acute 
supervision to enforce uniformity or thoroughness in the com- 
mon records of pupils' attendance and work kept by the teach- 
ers. In Ohio, the principal teaches too much and is too little 
prepared to do much with even the machinery of supervision. 
In Michigan, the County School Commissioner's services are 
radiated too far from the county seat ; and only by means of con- 
centration, through the focus of some particular phase of 
school activity, which he may elect to emphasize for the time 
being, may he hope to make his influence decisively effective in all 
parts of the county. The splendid records kept by a few 

46 



School Status 47 

teachers in each locality were obviously due to special endow- 
ments of executive ability. 

Scope of Divisions. The statistics presented in Division I, 
relative to the districts, are as accurate as the records in so far 
as the items are matters of record. Such items as the number 
of legal voters in the district and the number of women voting, 
are not shown by the records ; and these, together with others of 
like character, were obtained by asking some person, usually an 
official who was present at the annual school meeting. 

In Division II, relative to teachers, the items were furnished 
by the teachers themselves in every case ; but, since records had 
not been kept by many as to the number and length of visits to 
their schoolrooms by outsiders and visits made by themselves 
to homes and attendance at social functions in their districts, 
they did not respond with much confidence touching these items. 
What they did say is presented as a careful estimate made by the 
teachers. 

In Division III, relative to pupils, the items are such as the 
existing records afford. The conception of each pupil's whole 
school record, as a unit, has not yet been formulated in the 
schools here studied. The attempt to establish the educational 
pedigree of each child on the school census list falls short just 
to the extent that the records are imperfect in items for which 
there is pretension of record ; and to the extent to which records, 
at best, are incomplete, i.e., records in which no itemization of 
the activities of children not in the home school, is attempted. 

In Division IV, relating to the general features of the schools' 
activities, the items were given by the teachers, partially from 
records, and in part from memory. Some of these items were 
very crudely presented since they were new and had been of 
very little concern to many of the teachers. 

Division i. The Districts 

Related Groups. The statistics for the districts are presented 
in related groups in the following tables. The distribution of 
items in the several small districts of the Michigan townships, 
with such township summaries as the items permit, will be 
shown in connection with the most comparable Ohio consolidated 



48 



Tzvo Types of Rural Schools 



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School Status 49 

township in each of the tables, four townships in each state being 
presented to afford a sufficient area for comparison. Following 
these distributed and summarized tables, a table of summaries 
alone will be presented; and, concluding this division, will be a 
table presenting such totals, medians, averages, and frequencies 
for all of the four district school townships in comparison with 
all four consolidated school townships as it is hoped will be 
helpful to the reader. 

Areas and Valuations. In Table XXVII, the areas, tax valua- 
tions and valuations of school properties are shown. This table 
reads as follows : Districts one, one-fractional, two, three, four, 
five, five-fractional, and six of Alamo township, had areas of 
four and one-half sections, sVs, SVs, 5"/i«. 3Vig, 3. ^Vs and 
3^, respectively, making a total of 31% sections; and the area 
of the Ohio consolidated districts was 25 sections respectively. 
The reason the district areas in Michigan do not add up to 36 
sections, or a complete township, is that fractional districts, i.e., 
districts partly in one township and partly in another township, 
are administered in the township in which the school-house 
stands; so that the school township varies in area from the 
geographical township. The reading of the other items in this 
table is readily seen from the reading of the first item. 

Cost of Instruction. Table XXVIII presents the tax rate, 
the per capita cost, the salaries of teachers, and the cash on 
hand at the end of the year. The noticeably high tax rates and 
cost of instruction in District Number One, of Alamo, and Dis- 
trict Number Five, Richland, are caused by the attempt to pro- 
vide some high school instruction in these districts, which are 
village districts. The greatly increased tax rate in the consoli- 
dated township districts is due in part to the maintenance of 
high school instruction, but much more largely to the expense 
of transporting the children to school. Vernon paid $2,974.41, 
or a per capita of $16.52, for transportation; Gustavus paid a 
per capita of $15.13; Kinsman paid a per capita of $13.30; and 
Johnston paid a per capita of $14.64. These items are not cor- 
rected for days lost on holidays, but are approximately correct. 
The large amount of cash on hand at the end of the year in 
the Michigan townships is due to the strict division of the school 



50 



Two Types of Rural Schools 



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Gustavus 
onsolidate 
Township 


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5858 

32 

2320 

1265 

Kinsman 
onsolidate- 
Township 


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School Status 



51 



funds into separate funds for designated purposes only; and to 
the fact that the needs of these specified purposes and the 
amounts apportioned to meet these needs are not automatically 
adjusted. 

Library Status. Table XXIX presents the existing condi- 
tions as to school libraries in the several district school and 
consolidated school townships. Five of the thirty-one schools 
of the district townships have no library; and nine of the 
twenty-six districts having libraries added no books within the 
year. Reference to Table VII shows that Richland has a Ladies' 
Library containing 11 60 volumes, to which 23 books were added 
within the year. The splendid library conditions in Kinsman 
township are due to the union of the public and school 
libraries and the devoted care of a voluntary and very competent 
librarian. 



TABLE XXIX 
School Libraries 





Numbers of Districts 


Vernon 

Consolidated 

School 


Items 


Alamo District Schools 




1 


Ifr 


2 


3 


4 


5 


5fr 


6 




Whole 
Township 


Whole 
Township 


Total Number of Volumes 
in Library 


168 


91 
9 


26 
1 


71 
1 


123 
15 


75 
25 


60 
10 


78 
14 




692 
75 


600 


Number of Volumes Added 
This Year 


80 








Cooper District Schools 


Gustavus 

Consolidated 

Township 




1 


2 


2fr 


4 


5 


7 


8fr 






Township 


Total Number of Volumes 
in Library 


71 
18 


134 
14 


68 
14 


300 


50 


67 
22 


21 
21 






711 
89 


575 


Number of Volumes Added 
This Year 


56 












Richland District Schools 


Kinsman 

Consolidated 

Township 




1 


2 

20 
1 


3 


4fr 

85 
12 


5 

111 
51 


7fr 
9 


8fr 
113 


llf 


12f 

89 
5 


Township 


Total Number of Volumes 


427 
69 


1800 


Number of Volumes Added 
This Year 


500 












Ross District Schools 


Johnston 

Consolidated 

Township 




1 
49 


2 


3 

4 


6fr 


8fr 
100 


9fr 

60 

24 


14 fi 
135 


— 


— 


Township 


Total Number of Volumes 
in Library 


348 

24 


567 


Number of Volumes Added 
This Year 


60 







52 



Two Types of Rural Schools 



Enrollment and Attendance. Table XXX reads: In Alamo 
township, the districts had 51, 25, 20, 23, 37, 44, 37, and 26 
children of school age respectively, making a total of 263 for 
the township; and Vernon Consolidated School had a total of 
232 children of school age. In Alamo, 196 children vv^ere en- 
rolled and 136 were in daily attendance, or 71 per cent of the 
enrollment. In Vernon, 180 children were enrolled and 125 
were in daily attendance, or 69 per cent. For a tabulation of 
the actual attendance of each pupil, in days, see Table XLIIL 
The slight discrepancy which appears between the statistics 
given in Table XXX and those given in Table XLIII, is due 
to the fact that the figures found in Table XXX were taken 
from the official reports while those in Table XLIII were ob- 
tained from an actual count from the records of each teacher. 

TABLE XXX 
Census, Enrollment, Attendance of Pupils 



Items 



Children of School Age. . . . 

Total Enrollment 

Average Daily Attendance. 

Percent, of Attend. Based 

on Enrollment 



Children of School Age .... 

Total Enrollment 

Average Daily Attendance. 
Percent, of Attend 

Children of School Age. . . . 

Total Enrollment 

Average Daily Attendance. 
Percent, of Attend 

Children of School Age .... 

Total Enrollment 

Average Daily Attendance. 
Percent, of Attend 



Numbers op Districts 



Alamo District Schools 



1 


Ifr 


2 


3 


4 


5 


5fr 


6 




hi 


25 


20 


23 


37 


44 


37 


26 




41 


21 


20 


14 


24 


36 


22 


17 




30 


15 


16 


10 


16 


20 


15 


14 




73 


.71 


.80 


.71 


.66 


.55 


.68 


.82 





Whole, 
Township 



263 
196 
136 

Med. .71 









Cooper District Schools 


1 


2 

47 


2fr 

38 


4 
14 


5 

25 


7 
29 


8fr 
55 








37 


27 


46 


34 


10 


19 


20 


34 






23 


30 


22 


5 


12 


15 


25 






85 


.64 


.64 


.50 


.63 


.75 


.73 







Township 



245 

190 

132 

Med. .64 



Richland District Schools 



1 2 3 4fr 5 7fr8frllfl2f Township 



,45 



247 

200 

152 

Med. .78 



Ross District Schools 



1 


2 


3 


6fr 


8fr 


9fr 


14 fr 






28 


22 


19 


17 


24 


40 


44 






18 


18 


13 


15 


14 


20 


34 






14 


10 


10 


10 


8 


18 


24 






77 


.55 


.77 


.66 


.57 


.90 


.73 







Township 



194 

132 

94 

Med. .73 



Vernon 

Consolidated 

School 



Whole 
Township 



232 
180 
125 



Gustavus 

Consolidated 

Township 



215 
181 
152 
.83 



Kinsman 

Consolidated 

Township 



349 
263 
213 
.80 



Johnston 

Consolidated 

Township 



245 
211 
184 
.86 



School Status 



53 



Tenure and Salary. Table XXXI shows the months that 
school was maintained in each district, the number of different 
teachers working in each school during the year, and the monthly 
salaries of teachers. Districts No. i, Alamo, and No. 2, Cooper, 
are two-room schools; District No. 5, Richland, is a four-room 
school. Of the twenty-eight one-room schools, twenty-three 
kept the same teacher throughout the year; each of the other 
five one-room district schools made 'one change in teachers dur- 
ing the year. Thus 82 per cent of the teachers had whole-year 
tenure. This condition for the same localities in 1881, was 10 
per cent. In the four consolidated school townships, but one 
change occurred in the teaching corps in a year. Where the 



TABLE XXXI 
School Year, Teachers, and Monthly Wage 





Numbers of Districts 


Vernon 

Consolidated 

School 


Items 


Alamo District Schools 




1 


Ifr 


2 


3 


4 


5 


5fr 


6 




Whole 
Township 


Whole 
Township 


Number of Months School . 
Number of Different Teach- 


9 

2 

$72 
45 


9 

1 
$40 


8.6 
2 

$42 


9 
1 

$40 


9 
1 

$42 


9 

1 
$40 


8 

1 

$40 


9 

1 
$35 




Med. 9 

10 

Med. $40 


8i 
6 


Average Wages Per Month 


Supt. $95. $40 




Cooper District Schools 


Gustavus 

Consolidated 

Township 




1 


2 


2fr 


4 


5 


7 


8fr 






Township 


Number of Months School . 
Nimiber of Different Teach- 


9 

1 
S40 


9 

2 

$50 

35 


9 

1 
$35 


9 

1 
$35 


9 

1 
$43 


9 

1 

$35 


9 
1 

$45 






Med. 9 

8 

Med. $40 


8 
6 


Average Wages Per Month. 


$100. $40 




Richland District Schools 


Kinsman 

Consolidated 

Township 




1 

1 

$4:5 


2 
8 
1 

$35 


3 

8 

1 

$35 


4fr 
9 

2 

$45 


5 
9 

4 

$83 
45 


7fr 
8 
1 

$35 


Sfr 
9 
2 

$36 


Hi 

8 
2 

$37 


12 f 
9 
1 

$40 


Township 


Ntimber of Months School . 
Number of Different Teach- 
ers 


Med. 8i 

15 

Med. $40 


9 

s 


Average Wages Per Month. 


$95, $52i 




Ross District Schools 


Johnston 

Consolidated 

Township 




1 
9 

1 

$40 


2 

8 

1 
$40 


3 

9 

1 
$35 


6fr 
8 

1 

$37 


8fr 

8 

2 
$30 


9fr 
9 

1 

$45 


14 f 

9 

1 
$40 


r 





Township 


Number of Months School . 
Number of Different Teach- 


Med. 9 

8 
Med. $40 


8 
6 


Average Wages Per Month. 


$90,$40 



54 



Two Types of Rural Schools 



school had more than one room, the salary of the principal is 
shown without being included in the average wages being paid 
by the school. 

Annual Meeting. In Table XXXII, items are shown in re- 
gard to the annual school meeting, which are not matters of re- 
cord, e.g., the number of legal school voters and the number 
of women voting. These items are given in every district where 
an estimate could be obtained from persons considered com- 

TABLE XXXII 

Attendance at Annual School Meeting 





Numbers of Districts 


Vernon 

Consolidated 

School 


Items 


Alamo District Schools 




1 


Ifr 


2 


3 


4 


5 


5fr 


6 




Whole 
Township 


Whole 
Township 


Number of Legal School 
Voters 


? 

28 

7 


72 

10 
2 


83 

15 



21 

3 



27 

20 



27 

10 
4 


21 

12 



14 

6 





? 265 

104 
13 


210 


Number of Voters Attend- 
ing Annual School Meet- 


150 


Number of Women Attend- 
ing 











Cooper District Schools 


Gustavus 

Consolidated 

Township 




1 


2 


2fr 


4 


5 


7 


8fr 






Township 


Number of Legal School 
j^ Voters 


30 



69 

25 



20 

11 



16 

3 



? 

14 
4 


13 

5 



25 

5 







? 173 

68 

4 


235 


Number of Voters Attend- 
ing Annual School Meet- 


119 


Number of Women Attend- 
ins? . 











Richland District Schools 


Kinsman 

Consolidated 

Township 




1 

26 

11 
5 


2 

25 

12 



3 

24 

4 

2 


4fr 

18 

3 



5 

89 

15 



7fr 

27 

17 
6 


8fr 

10 

5 



llf 

14 

7 



12f 

21 

6 



Township 


Number of Legal School 
Voters 


254 

80 
13 


218 


Number of Voters Attend- 
ing Annual School Meet- 

jjior 


135 


Number of Women Attend- 
ing 


1 








Ross District Schools 


Johnston 

Consolidated 

Township 




1 



44 

:o 




2 

23 

4 



3 

20 

6 

4 


6fr 
22 
12 


8fr 

20 

7 



9fr 

? 

4 



14 f 

25 

10 
4 


r 




Township 


Number of Legal School 
Voters 


? 154 

53 

8 


255 


Number of Voters Attend- 
ing Annual School Meet- 
ing . . . 


180 


Number of Women Attend- 
insr 


3 







School Status 



55 



petent. Where the estimates could not be secured, question 
marks are inserted in the table, and also opposite the totals. The 
percentage of attendance of voters at the annual school meet- 
ing is more than twice as great in the consolidated school town- 
ships as in the district school townships. In neither locality do 
the women voters manifest very much interest in voting. 

General Summary. The summary of the two types of town- 
ships enables the reader to see at a glance the differences which 
have been shown in particulars in the foregoing tables of this 
division. In Table XXXIII, the most noticeable contrasts are 
in the total areas of school sites; the wide divergence in the 
rates of school tax; the greatly increased cost of education in 
the consolidated townships, due to transportation and the main- 

TABLE XXXIII 

Summarized Comparison of District School Townships and 
Consolidated School Townships 



Items 

Area in Sections 

Tax Valuations 

Sites in Square Rods 

Value of School Property 

Rate of Local Tax 

Total Cost of Transportation 

Per Capita Cost of Transportation 

Total Paid in Teachers' Wages 

Annual Cost of Education 

*Per Capita Cost, Based on Enrollment. . . . 
Cash on Hand at End of Year 

Volumes in Libraries 

Volumes Added During Year 

Children of School Age 

Enrollment 

Average Daily Attendance 

Percentage of Enrollment, Based on Census 
Percentage of Attendance, Based on Enroll- 
ment 

Days of School 

Different Teachers. 

Median Wages Per Month (Excl. of Supts.) 

Estimated Legal Voters 

Voters at Annual Meeting 

Women Voters at Meeting 



District 


Consolidated 


Townships 


Townships 


113.3 


100 


$3,126,800 


$2,943,579 


4283 


1785 


$28,450 


$38,000 


$.00254 


$.00905 




$12,034 




$15 


$13,190 


$11,348 


$18,169 


$29,049 


$23 


$34 


$12,182 


$2,765 




Deficit 2,500 


2178 


3486 


257 


658 


949 


1041 


718 


835 


514 


674 


.76 


.80 


.70 


.80 


177 


167 


41 


26 


$39 


$40 


866 


918 


305 


584 


38 


4 



* In determining the per capita cost for the district school townships, District No. 5 
Richland, a village district, was eliminated. 



56 



Two Types of Rviral Schools 



tenance of high schools; the better Hbrary service in the con- 
soHdated schools ; the better percentage of enrollment and atten- 
dance of the consolidated schools; the longer school year of the 
district schools ; the much better attendance at the annual meet- 
ing in the consolidated schools; and the greater, though even at 
that still very small, attendance of women at the annual meet- 
ings in the smaller districts. The facts regarding the Comstock 
consolidated school, which is the largest school of its type in 
Michigan, are given in Appendix A. 

Division II. The Teachers 

The teachers of the schools reported in these pages responded, 
with very few exceptions, cheerfully, promptly, and as com- 
pletely as possible, to the twenty-five inquiries addressed to them. 
Very few teachers failed to understand the importance of giv- 
ing all the items but several were unable to give some items be- 
cause they did not have the facts. The data collected are shown 
in the following tables in their entirety, with only necessary ex- 
planations and supplemental statements. 

Personal Items. Table XXXIV shows a distribution of the 
teachers of the several districts in the items of age, sex, and 
father's occupation. The abbreviations are self-declarative, with 
the possible exception of " R. F. D.," which means a rural route 
mail carrier ; " Book," which means book-keeper ; " Oil," which 
means an oil producer ; and " Liv," which means liveryman. 
The summaries and further explanatory and supplemental dis- 
cussion of this and the following tables, which present the in- 
formation about teachers in detail, will be found preceding 
Table XLI. 



TABLE XXXIV 

Age, Sex, and Parentage of Teachers 









Numbers of Districts 


Items 


Alamo District Schools 




1 


1 


Ifr 


2 


3 


4 


5 


5fr 


6 








Age 

Sex 

Father's Oc- 
cupation . . 


20 
M 

Agri 


20 
F 

Agri 


20 
M 

Agri 


21 
M 

Agri 


19 

M 

R.F.D 


35 
F 

Agri 


21 
F 

Agri 


22 
M 

Agri 


18 
F 

Agri 









School Status 



57 



TABLE XXXIY— Continued 



Items 


Vernon Consolidated School 


Supt 


Asst 


7-8 


5-6 


3-4 


1-2 














Age 

Sex 

Father's Oc- 
cupation . . 


34 
M 

Agri 


20 
M 

Agri 


21 
F 

Agri 


22 
F 

Agri 


23 
F 

Agri 


20 
F 

Merch 
















Cooper District Schools 




1 


2 


2 


2fr 


4 


5 


7 


8fr 










Age 

Sex 

Father's Oc- 
cupation.. 


20 
F 

Agri 


36 

M 

Agri 


21 
F 

Agri 


19 
F 

Agri 


19 
F 

Agri 


25 
F 

Agri 


20 
F 

Agri 


22 
F 

Agri 












Gustavus Consolidated School 




Supt 


Asst 


6-; 


^-8 


3-4-5 


1-2 












Age 

Sex 

Father's Oc- 
cupation.. 


34 
M 

Agri 


31 
F 

Agri 


20 
F 

Agri 


32 
F 

Agri 


31 
F 

Agri 


24 
F 

Agri 














Richland District Schools 




1 


2 


3 


4fr 


Supt 


Asst 


5-6-7 


1-4 


7fr 


8fr 


llfr 


12fr 


Age 

Sex 

Father's Oc- 
cupation. . 


22 
F 

Agri 


19 
F 

Agri 


21 
F 

Agri 


23 
F 

Agri 


30 
M 

Cont 


33 

F 

Bldr 


24 
F 

Bldr 


23 
F 

Agri 


40 
F 

Agri 


25 
F 

R.R. 


18 
F 

Agri 


20 
F 

Liv 




Kinsman Consolidated School 




Supt 


Asst 


Asst 


7-8 


5-6 


3-4 


1-2 












Age 

Sex 

Father's Oc- 
cupation . . 


34 
M 

Agri 


24 
F 
Lake 
Capt 


33 

F 

Agri 


35 
F 

Agri 


20 
F 

Agri 


21 
F 

Agri 


22 
F 

Oil 
















Ross District Schools 




1 


2 


3 


6fr 


8fr 


9fr 


14fr 












Age 

Sex 

Father's Oc- 
cupation. . 


20 

M 

Agri 


24 
F 

Agri 


24 
F 

Agri 


20 
F 

Agri 


26 
F 

Agri 


21 
M 

R.F.D 


71 

M 

Agri 














Johnston Consolidated School 




Supt 


Asst 


7-8 


5-6 


3-4 


1-2 














Age 

Sex 

Father's Oc- 
cupation . . 


25 
M 

Agri 


21 
F 

Book 


19 
M 

Agri 


20 
M 

Tchr 


21 
F 

Agri 


22 
F 

Lab 















58 



Two Types of Rural Schools 



Educational Qualifications. Table XXXV shows, in the first 
item, the total years of school attendance by teachers. Nine 
years means the completion of the 9th grade ; 10 years, the loth 
grade; 11 years, the nth grade; 12 years, the 12th grade; and 
more than 12 years means normal school or college study. A 
paragraph gives the particulars about the kinds of teachers' cer- 
tificates in the two states. In the months of normal school in- 
struction, one and one-half indicates attendance at a normal 
school summer term of six weeks. In District No, 14 Fractional 
of Ross township, Michigan, an old man is teaching who reports 
375 months of experience. This experience has been mostly in 
one-room schools. The writer knows two other such teachers in 
a county adjacent to Kalamazoo. In this and in later tables 
blanks indicate no definite answer. Ciphers indicate a negative 
answer. 



TABLE XXXV 
Academic and Professional Training of Teachers 





Number of Districts 


Items 


Alamo District Schools 




1 


1 


Ifr 


2 


3 


4 


5 


5fr 


6 








Years of ^ Educational 


14 

3rd 

12 


11 

R 
20 
18 


12 
3rd 

1 


11 

R 
9 

22 


12 
3rd 

1 


12 

2nd 

6 

90 


11 

2nd 
12 
44 


11 

A.R. 

10^ 
16 


12 
3rd 

^1 




Kind and Grade of Pre- 
sent Certificate 

Mos. Normal Sch. Instr. 
Mos, Teaching Exper. . . 






Vernon Consolidated School 




Supt 


Asst 


7-8 


5-6 


3-4 


1-2 














Years of Educational 
Preparation 


14 

H 

6 

109 


12 

H 

1 

16 


12 
E 
23 


14 

E 
10 
23 


12 

E 

1 
32 


13 

E 

3 

17 














Kind and Grade of Pre- 

h sent Certificate 

Mos. Normal Sch. Instr. 
Mos. Teaching Exper. . . 






Cooper District Schools 




1 


2 


2 


2fr 


4 


5 


7 


8fr 










Years of Educational 
Preparation 

Kind and Grade of Pre- 
sent Certificate 

Mos. Normal Sch. Instr. 

Mos. Teaching Exper. . . 


10 

R 

20 
18 


12 

2nd 

140 


12 

3rd 

3 

18 


12 
3rd 


12 

3rd 

9 


12 

3rd 



121 


12 

R 

27 

9 


11 

R 

9 

12 











School Status 



59 



TABLE XXX.Y— Continued 



Items 



Years of Educational 
Preparation 

Kind and Grade of Pre- 
sent Certificate 

Mos. Normal Sch. Instr. 

Mos. Teaching Exper. . . 



Years of ^ Educational 
Preparation 

Kind and Grade of Pre- 
sent Certificate 

Mos. Normal Sch. Instr. 

Mos. Teaching Exper. . . 



Years of Educational 
Preparation 

Kind and Grade of Pre- 
sent Certificate 

Mos. Normal Sch. Instr 

Mos. Teaching Exper. . 



Years of Educational 
Preparation 

Kind and Grade of Pre- 
sent Certificate 

Mos. Normal Sch. Instr 

Mos. Teaching Exper .. . 



Years of Educational 
Preparation 

Kind and Grade of Pre- 
sent Certificate 

Mos. Normal Sch. Instr, 

Mos. Teaching Exper. . . 



Gustavus Consolidated School 



Supt Asst 6-7-8 3-4-5 1-2 



15 

L 

8 

124 



14 



12 

E 
24 



Richland District Schools 



1 


2 


3 


4fr 


Supt 


Asst 


5-6-7 


1-4 


7fr 


8fr 


llfr 


12 


12 


9 


11 


14 


12 


12 


12 


12 


12 


12 


G 
9 

26i 


3rd 

3 

13 


3rd 

12 

17 


A.R 
10 
27 


1st 
10 
87 


2nd 

5 
103-1 


G 

18 
27 


2nd 

12 

45 


3rd 
18 
210 


2nd 



65^ 


A.R. 
21 

3i 



12 



A.R. 

19 



Kinsman Consolidated School 



Supt 


Asst 


Asst 


7-8 


5-6 


3-4 


1-2 










17 


16 


14 


10 


12 


12 


14 










Ti 


H 


H 


E 


E 


E 


E 










4 






2 


3 


2 


27 










90 


27 


120 


135 


17 


25 


26 











Ross District Schools 



1 


2 


3 


6fr 


8fr 


9fr 


14fr 










12 


12 


12 


12 


11 


12 


12 










2nd 


2nd 


3rd 


3rd 


2nd 


A.R 


2nd 










U 


3 





3* 


3 


IH- 


10 










18 


37 


27 


31 


54 


9 


375 











Johnston Consolidated School 



Supt 


Asst 


7-8 


5-6 


3-4 


1-2 












16 


14 


12 


10 


12 


13 












H 


H 

27 


E 


E 
2 


E 


E 
9 












25 


15 


16 


16 


16 


24 













Teachers' Certificates. In Michigan, teachers' certificates, 
granted by the County Board of School Examiners, are 
designated as First, Second, and Third Grade Certificates. 
Third Grade certificates are granted to suitable persons who 
pass an examination in the common school branches; 
Second Grade certificate examinations include a choice of 



6o 



Two Types of Rural Schools 



two out of four secondary school subjects; and First Grade 
certificate examinations include five secondary school subjects. 
The abbreviations " L," " G," " R," " A. R.," in Table XXXV, 
read Life certificate, Graded School certificate, Rural School 
certificate, and Advanced Rural School certificate. These cer- 
tificates are all granted by the Michigan normal schools, and 
the last three are limited in application and duration. (State of 
Michigan, General School Laws, 191 1, Compilers' Sections 183, 
184, 288, 312.) 

In Ohio the teachers' certificates, granted by County Boards 
of School Examiners, are Elementary, High School, and Special, 
and are indicated, in the table, by " E," " H,' and " S." The 
first is valid for all branches of study below high school rank; 
the second is valid for all high school subjects; and the last 
is valid for schools of all grades, but only for the branch or 
branches named therein. (Ohio School Laws, 1910, p. 138.) 

Current Aids. Table XXXVI shows the use of current pro- 
fessional aids by teachers in service. The teachers are indicated 
by the schools in which they taught, and, in the schools of more 
than one room, the particular part of the work that each had 
is indicated. The direct benefit which close supervision might 
secure in all of these items in both types of schools, is suggested 
by the figures in this table. 



TABLE XXXVI 

Current Professional Aids Used by Teachers 





NuMBEKS OF Districts 


Items 


Alamo District Schools 




1 


1 


Ifr 


2 


3 


4 


5 


5fr 


6 








Days attendance at In- 
stitutes This Year 

Reading Circle Books 
This Year . . . 


1 


2 
3 


2 
3 
3 


2 




2 


1 


2 

3 


2 

2 


2 
3 
2 


1 
3 
1 








School Journals Taken 
This Year 










Vernon Consolidated School 




Supt 


Asst 


7-8 


5-6 


3-4 


1-2 














Days Attendance at In- 
stitutes This Yeat 

Reading Circle Books 
Read This Year 

School Journals Taken 
This Year 


1 
* 
3 


7 
3 
I 


5 

1 
2 



2 


7 

1 


5 
1 

4 



















School Status 



6i 



TABLE :KXXN1— Continued 



Items 


Cooper District Schools 


1 


2 


2 


2fr 


4 


5 


7 


8fr 










Days Attendance at In- 
stitutes This Year. . . . 

Reading Circle Books 
Read This Year 

School Journals Taken 
This Year 



3 
3 


2 
3 
2 


2 
3 
2 


2 

2 


3 
2 




2 


2 


2 


2 
3 

2 
















Gustavus Consolidated School 




Sxipt 


Asst 


6-7-8 


3-4^5 


1-2 














Days Attendance at In- 
stitutes This Year 

Reading Circle Books 
Read This Year 

School Journals Taken 
This Year 


5 
4 
5 


6 
3 
1 




1 



5 

4 
2 


5 
4 
2 


5 
4 




















Richland District Schools 




1 


2 


3 


4fr 


Supt 


Asst 


5-6-7 


1-4 


7fr 


8fr 


llfr 


12fr 


Days Attendance at In- 
stitutes This Year. . . . 

Reading Circle Books 

^Read This Year 

School Journals Taken 
This Year 




1 


2 
3 

2 




1 




1 


3 
3 
2 


2 

2 


2 

2 




2 




1 


1 








1 

1 
2 








Kinsman Consolidated School 




Supt 


Asst 


Asst 


7-8 


5-6 


3-4 


1-2 












Days Attendance at In- 
stitutes This Year. .. . 

Reading Circle Books 
Read This Year 

School Journals Taken 
This Year 


12 
4 
4 


3 





5 

3 


5 
4 
1 



2 
1 


5 

1 
3 




3 


















Ross District Schools 




1 


2 


3 


6fr 


8fr 


9fr 


14fr 




1 








Days Attendance at In- 
stitutes This Year 

Reading Circle Books 
Read This Year 

School Journals Taken 
This Year 


3 

2 


2 

1 




2 


1 
3 
2 


2 
3 
2 


2 


2 


2 
3 
1 


















Johnston Consolidated School 




Supt 


Asst 


7-8 


5-6 


3-4 


1-2 














Days Attendance at In- 
stitutes This Year. . . . 

Reading Circle Books 
Read This Year 

School Journals Taken 
This Year 


4 

2 
2 




2 

1 


6 
1 
2 


5 
4 
1 


5 
4 
2 


5 

2 

1 




















(>2 



Two Types of Rural Schools 



Actual Income. Table XXXVII shows the annual tenure in 
days, the salary per month, and the larger items of incidental 
personal expenditure such as, board, room, and travel per 
month, where such items could be secured from the teachers. 
The individual teachers are indicated by the numbers of the 
district schools which they taught and, in the cases of schools of 
more than one room, the teachers are indicated by the particular 
positions or grades in which they taught. For example, in 
Vernon Consolidated School, the teachers are indicated as super- 
intendent and assistant in high school, teacher of 7th and 8th 
grades, teacher of 5th and 6th grades, teacher of 3rd and 4th 
grades, and teacher of ist and 2nd grades. 



TABLE XXXVII 
Employment and Remuneration of Teachers 





NuMBEKS OF Districts 


Items 


Alamo District Schools 




1 


1 


Ifr 


2 


3 


4 


5 


5fr 


6 








Days Employed in 
School This Year .... 

Wages Per Month 

Cost of Board, Room 
and Travel Per Month 


80 
$70 


180 

$45 


180 

$40 

$15 


100 

$45 

$15 


180 
$40 

$13 


180 

$45 

$20 


180 
$40 


160 
$40 

$20 


180 
$35 

$14 










Vernon Consolidated School 




Supt 


Asst 


7-8 


5-6 


3-4 


1-2 












Days Employed in 
School This Year .... 

Wages Per Month 

Cost of Board, Room 
and Travel Per Month 


163 

$95 


163 

$40 

$13 


163 

$40 

$15 


163 

$40 

$15 


163 
$40 

$13 


163 

$40 

$20 
















Cooper District Schools 




1 


2 


2 


2fr 


4 


5 


7 


8fr 










Days Employed in 
School This Year .... 

Wages Per Month 

Cost of Board, Room 
and Travel Per Month 


180 
$40 

$12 


180 


180 
$35 


180 

$35 

$15 


180 
$35 

$12 


177 

$42^ 


176 

$35 


180 

$45 

$17 












Gustavus Consolidated School 




Supt 


Asst 


6-7-8 


3-4-5 i 1-2 














Days Employed in 
School This Year 

Wages Per Month 

Cost of Board, Room 
and Travel Per Month 


157 
$100 


160 
$50 


160 

$45 

$14 


160 

$40 


160 
$40 


160 
$40 















School Status 



63 



TABLE 'XXX.VII— Continued 



Items 


Richland District Schools 


1 


2 


3 


4fr 


Supt 


Asst 


5-6-7 


1-4 


7fr 


8fr 


llfr 


12fr 


Days Employed in 
School This Year .... 

Wages Per Month 

Cost of Board, Room 
and Travel Per Month 


170 

$45 


160 

$35 

$121 


155 

$35 

$14 


180 
$35 

$12 


160 

$85 

$20 


180 

$50 


180 
$40 


180 

$40 

$10 


160 

$35 

$10 


180 

$40 


160 

$38 


160 
$40 




Kinsman Consolidated School 




Supt 


Asst 


Asst 


7-8 1 5-6 


3-4 


1-2 












D^s Employed '5 in 
School This Year .... 

Wages Per Month 

Cost of Board, Room 
and Travel Per Month 


180 
$111 


180 
$65 

$25 


180 
$60 


180 
$50 

$17 


180 

$45 

$14 


180 

$45 

$12 


180 

$52-^ 

$16 














Ross District Schools 




1 


2 


3 


6fr 


8fr 


9fr 


14fr 












Days Employed in 
School This Year .... 

Wages Per Month 

Cost of Board, Room 
and Travel Per Month 


175 

$40 

$12 


160 

$40 

$10 


180 

$35 


157 

$36i 


160 
$30 

$10i 


180 

$45 

$22 


180 
$40 














Johnston Consolidated School 




Supt 


Asst 


7-8 


5-6 


3-4 


1-2 














Days Employed in 
School This Year 

Wages Per Month 

Cost of Board, Room 
and Travel Per Month 


160 
$90 


157 

$50 


160 
$40 

$12 


160 

$40 

$16 


157 

$40 

$11 


157 

$40 















Official Direction. Table XXXVIII presents the numerical 
items learned about calls received by teachers from supervising 
and inspecting officers. In the district schools, the supervisory 
function of the County Commissioner (or Superintendent) of 
Schools was performed, in so far as direct contact with the 
teacher at work was concerned, in all but a few instances, by 
one annual visit varying in length from 15 to 150 minutes. This 
is supplemented by correspondence, by telephoning, by circulars 
and bulletins, and by calls upon the commissioner at his office in 
the county seat on Saturdays. In the consolidated schools, the 
superintendent has very little time left for supervision after 
teaching his classes in the high school. There is a wide variety 
of practice by different superintendents ; a supervisor of superin- 
tendents would find work. 



64 



Two Types of Rural Schools 



TABLE XXXVIII 
Supervisory and Other Official Visits Received by Teachers 





Numbers op Districts 


Items 


Alamo District Schools 




1 


1 


Ifr 


2 


3 


4 


5 


5fr 


6 








Visits by the Superin- 
tendent 


1 


1 


1 
2 


1 

1 
3 
2 


1 


1 


1 


1 

11 


2 
1 








Ave. Length in Hours . . 

Visits by Officers 

Ave. Length in Hours. . 






Vernon Consolidated School 




Supt 


Asst 


7-8 


5-6 


3-4 


1-2 














Visits by the Superin- 






6 
i 


10 

i 


8 


15 














Ave. Length in Hours . . 

Visits by Officers 

Ave. Length in Hours. . 






Cooper District Schools 




1 


2 


2 


2fr 


4 


5 


7 


8fr 










Visits by the Superin- 


1 
2 
1 


1 
2 



1 
2 



1 

n 

1 

2 


1 

i 


1 

1 

2 


1 
1 


1 
1* 

2i 










Ave. Length in Hours. . 

Visits by Officers 

Ave. Length in Hours. . 






Gustavus Consolidated School 




Supt 


Asst 


6-7-8 


3-4-5 


1-2 














Visits by the Superin- 


3 


3 





32 

X 

5 

n 


32 


32 














Ave. Length in Hours . . 

Visits by Officers 

Ave. Length in Hours. . 






Richland District Schools 




1 


2 


3 


4fr 


Supt 


Asst 


5-6-7 


1-4 


7fr 


8fr 


llfr 


12fr 


Visits by the Superin- 
tendent 


1 


1 


1 
2 



2 


1 
3 
6 

i 














1 

2% 



1 

1 



1 



1 


Ave. Length in Hours. . 

Visits by Officers 

Ave. Length in Hours . . 







Kinsman Consolidated School 




Supt 


Asst 


Asst 


7-8 


5-6 


3-4 


1-2 1 










Visits by the Superin- 
tendent 






1 


1 


1 















Ave. Length in Hours . . 

Visits by Officers 

Ave. Length in Hours . . 





School Status 



65 



TABLE XXXVIII— Coriimwed 



Items 


Ross District Schools 


1 


2 


3 


6fr 


8fr 


9fr 


14fr 












Visits by the Superin- 
tendent .... 


1 

6 
2 


1 


1 

I 


1 




2 


1 
f 



1 

1 
2 
2 












Ave. Length in Hours . . 

Visits by Officers 

Ave. Length in Hours. . 






Johnston Consolidated School 




Supt 

1 


Asst 



7-8 


5-6 


3-4 


1-2 














Visits by the Superin- 


5 

1 

1 



1 






30 

0* 














Ave. Length in Hours . . 

Visits by Officers 

Ave. Length in Hours . . 





Visits Exchanged. The items presented in Table XXXIX are 
such as could be secured from the teachers, and the figures were 
given from memory in almost every case. The larger inter- 
change of visits between homes and schools in the district school 
townships may be due to several conditions. The teachers of 
these schools work with smaller groups of children and social 
conventions are less restrictive in the smaller groups of people; 
both of which facts aid the teachers in making closer acquain- 
tance and establishing personal ties. There are few homes 
represented in the school and all are within walking distance, 
so that a teacher who desires to do so may hope, without too 
great an expenditure of time and effort, to visit all of her pupils 
and their parents in their homes. Acquaintance and friendship 
w^th the teacher make visiting the school easier for the parents. 



TABLE XXXIX 

Visits Interchanged by Homes and Teachers 





Numbers op Districts 


Items 


Alamo District Schools 




1 


1 


Ifr 


2 


3 


4 


5 


5fr 


6 








Visits by Patrons not 
Officers. 

Ave. Length in Hours . . 

Number of Homes in 
District Visited by 
Teacher 


10 

li 

12 


50 
2 

20 


10 
2 

9 


23 
2 

12 




8 


4 

n 
10 


13 
3 

6 



5 


12 









66 



Tivo Types of Rural Schools 



TABLE XXKIK— Continued 



Items 


Vernon Consolidated School 


Supt 


Asst 


7-8 


5-6 


3-4 


1-2 














Visits by Patrons 

Ave. Length in Hours . . 
Homes Visited 




5 
3 


10 

1 


15 

li 
6 


50 

2 

10 


50 
2 

8 
















Cooper District Schools 




1 


2 


2 


2fr 4 


5 7 


8fr 










Visits by Patrons 

Ave. Length in Hours . . 


31 

8 


14 
3 
9 


18 
3 
8 


1 1 
3 3 
6 10 


1 
2 
8 


1 
8 


2 

U 

8 
















Gustavus Consolidated School 




Supt 


Asst 


6-7-8 


3-^5 


1-2 














Visits by Patrons 

Ave. Length in Hours . . 
Homes Visited 


4 
83* 


4 
ll 


12 


6 


3 

1 


10 
12 




















Richland District Schools 




1 


2 


3 


4fr 


Supt 


Asst 


5-6-7 


1-4 


7fr 


8fr 


llfr 


12fr 


Visits by Patrons 

Ave. Length in Hours . . 
Homes Visited 


10 

1 
7 


12 

3 

11 


4 

I 


1 
2 
6 


12 

2I 


20 

1^ 


2 
25 


2 

2 

15 


3 
6 



5 


1 

\ 
3 


2 
I 
9 








Kinsman Consolidated School 




Supt 


Asst 


Asst 7-8 


5-6 


3-4 


1-2 












Visits by Patrons 

Ave. Length in Hours . . 
Homes Visited 






1 2 

1 { 2 
5 


8 


6 

it 




















Ross District Schools 




1 


2 


3 


6fr 


8fr 


|9fr 


14fr 












Visits by Patrons 

Ave. Length in Hours . . 
Homes Visited .... 


4 
2 
2 


2 
3 
6 


6 


3 
3 
5 


6 

1 


18 

1 

16 


6 

1 
6 


















Johnston Consolidated School 




Supt 


Asst 


7-8 


5-6 


3-4 


1-2 














Visits by Patrons 

Ave. Length in Hours . . 
Homes Visited 


10 
3 

40 


25 

h 
10 


12 

2 

10 




10 

14 


50 

2 



















Social Service. The items in Table XL are given as reported 
by the teachers. The unexhausted possibilities of both the dis- 
trict and the consolidated types of country schools, for both 
social and entertainment service to the teachers and pupils who 



School Status 



67 



are in them, and to the environing community which supports 
them, are made obvious by a thoughtful consideration of this 
table. A tabulation like this suggests the pressing need for a 
widely published and often reiterated definition of the purposes 
and activities of the modem public school. 



TABLE XL 

Social and Entertainment Activities by Teachers 





Numbers of Districts 


Items 


Alamo District Schools 




1 
6 


1 


Ifr 


2 


3 


4 


5 


5fr 


6 








Social Gatherings in Dis. 
Attended by Teacher . 

Social Gatherings Man- 
aged by School 

Public Entertainments 
Given by School 


5 

3 


2 


2 

1 


4 




' 





3 
1 
















Vernon Consolidated School 




Supt 


Asst 


7-8 


5-6 


3-4 


1-2 














Social Gatherings At- 
tended by Teacher. . . 

Social Gatherings Man- 
aged by School 

Public Entertainments 

,, Given by School 




9 


5 
5 


6 
3 

7 




7 


20 
2 
8 
















Cooper District Schools 




1 


2 


2 


2fr 


4 


5 


7 


8fr 










Social Gatherings At- 
tended by Teacher. . . 

Social Gatherings Man- 
aged by School 

Public Entertainments 

l> Given by School 


5 
3 
2 


3 
3 

2 


2 
2 
2 


4 




1 









2 

1 
2 


3 

4 
3 












Gustavus Consolidated School 




Supt 


Asst 


6-7-8 


3-4-5 


1-2 














Social Gatherings At- 
tended by Teacher. . . 

Social Gatherings Man- 
aged by School 

Public Entertainments 
Given by School 


6 
4 

8 


4 
8 


6 

4 


2 


1 


10 
1 
















Richland District Schools 




1 


2 


3 


4fr 


Supt 


Asst 


5-6-7 


1-4 


7fr 


8fr 


llfr 


12fr 


Social Gatherings At- 
tended by Teacher . . . 

Social Gatherings Man- 
aged by School 

Public Entertainments 
Given by School 


3 
1 



3 
2 
1 




1 



2 
3 



20 
5 
3 


3 


2 














1 



68 



Two Types of Rural Schools 



TABLE Xl^-Continued 



Items 


Kinsman Consolidated School 


Supt 


Asst 


Asst 


7-8 


5-6 


3-4 


1-2 1 










Social Gatherings At- 
tended by Teacher. . . 

Social Gatherings Man- 
aged by School 

Public Entertainments 
Given by School 






3 
3 
1 


20 

1 


9 
2 


3 
1 
















Ross District Schools 




1 
1 

1 


2 


3 


6fr 


8fr 


9fr 


14fr 












Social Gatherings At- 
tended by Teacher . . . 

Social Gatherings Man- 
aged by School 

Public Entertainments 
Given by School 


3 

2 
3 


2 , 


3 
2 
1 







6 


















Johnston Consolidated School 




Supt 


Asst 


7-8 


5-6 


3-4 


1-2 














Social Gatherings At- 
tended by Teacher . . . 

Social Gatherings Man- 
aged by School 

Public Entertainments 
Given by School 


20 
10 
10 




5 
5 


12 


1 


10 
3 
1 















General Summary. The foregoing tables in Division II, rela- 
tive to teachers, are summarized for all of the teachers in each 
type of school under consideration, in Table XLI following. 
The salient facts emphasized in this table are: The advantage 
rests with the teachers in the consolidated schools to the extent 
that they are two years older, have had nine-tenths of a year 
more educational preparation, were two and one-quarter days 
more in institutes in the current year, have had eight months more 
experience in teaching, received four dollars per month more 
pay, had more supervisory visits, attended more social gather- 
ings, and gave more public entertainments; the advantage rests 
with the teachers of district schools to the extent that they have 
had three months more (or twice as much) normal school in- 
struction, were employed one-half month longer in school in 
the current year, paid one dollar a month less for board, room, 
and travel, had longer supervisory visits and both more and 
longer visits by school officers and patrons, and themselves 
visited more homes. And the two groups were approximately 
equal in the proportional representation of the sexes, in the sig- 



School Status 



69 



nificance of the kinds of certificates held, in the number of 
school journals taken in the current year, and in the occupations 
of their parents. In this last item, there was a slight divergence. 
Of the teachers of district schools, 83 per cent were the children 
of farmers, while but 80 per cent of the teachers in the consoli- 
dated schools were the children of farmers. The remaining one- 
fifth, or less, were children of parents engaged in various lines 
of industrial work and one was the child of a teacher. 

TABLE XLI 

Summary of Relative Facts About Teachers of District Schools 
AND Teachers of Consolidated Schools 



Items 



District 
Schools 



Consolidated 
Schools 



Median Age in Years 

Number of Male Teachers (M) ; Female (F) . 
Father's Occupation 

Median Years of Educational Preparation . . 
Kind and Grade of Present Certificate 

Median Months of Normal School Instruction 
Median Days Attendance at Institutes, 

1910-11 

Median Number Reading Circle Books Read, 

1910-11 

Median Number School Journals Taken, 

1910-11 

Median Months of Experience in Teaching. . 
Median Days Employed in School, 1910-11. 

Median Wages Per Month, 1910-11 

Median Cost Per Month of Board, Room and 

Travel 

Median Number of Visits by Superintendent 

Median Length of His Visits in Hours 

Total Number of Visits by District Officers. 
Median Length of Their Visits in Hours. . . . 

Visits by Patrons not Officers 

Median Length of Their Visits in Hours. . . . 

Homes Visited by Teachers 

Social Gatherings Attended by Teachers.. . . 

Social Gatherings Managed by Schools 

Public Entertainments Given by Schools . . . 



22 
M.,10;F., 25 

KA)29; (R)2; 
(L)1;(B)3 

12 

^1-3%, 2-40%, 

3-57% 
6 



2 

21 

177 

$39 

$13 
1 

If 
34 

H 

289 

2 

308 

78 

38 

36 



24 
M., 7;F., 18 

(A)20;(M)1; 

(L.C.)1;(0)1; 

(T)l;(Bk)l 

12.9 
H-40%;E-60% 



4i 
2 

2 

29 
167 

$43 

$14 
14 

\ 

28 

I 
286 

li 

271 
125 

38 

80 



1 (A) Agriculture, (R) Mail Carrier, (L) Liveryman, (B) Builder, (M) Merchant, (L.C.) 
Lake Captain, (T) Teacher, (O) Oil Producer. 

2 Reads: 3% had 1st Grade; 40%, 2nd Grade; 57%. 3rd Grade; 40%, High School; 
60%, Elementary School certificates. 

See paragraphs after Table XXXV. The Comstock consolidated school, the largest 
school of its type in Michigan, is summarized in Appendix A. 



70 Tzvo Types of Rural Schools 

The writer's personal observation, resulting from actually 
meeting the teachers and watching them at work, is that below 
the high school grades there is no appreciable advantage to 
either type of school in the localities studied, in so far as the 
teachers are concerned. Occasionally a particular school will 
give evidence of unusually strong teaching. The constant inter- 
mingling of the several teachers in the consolidated schools is 
an aid in a group dominated by strong teachers and it is a handi- 
cap in groups dominated by weak teachers. The undivided re- 
sponsibility of the teacher in the district school is the determin- 
ing element in establishing the morale of its situation. 

Division III. The Pupils 

In collecting the data for children, all whose names appeared 
in the school census and who had been counted in making the 
distribution of public school moneys, were taken into account 
in so far as any traces of them could be found. It is believed 
by the writer that all citizens who appear in the public record as 
the recognized wards of the State for educational purposes 
should be kept in a debtor as well as in a creditor record. That 
is, every child for whose education money is distributed by 
the State should be insured the benefits of his share of this 
state money by the necessary laws. 

Necessary Records. These necessary laws are impossible of 
enactment, except upon mere conjecture, unless there is a 
reasonably reliable and complete record kept, with official sanc- 
tion, covering the annual educational activities of each such citi- 
zen as is of the age recognized by statute as school age. The 
facts here presented about children who, by the act of enroll- 
ment in some school, gained entrance to the public school re- 
cords, furnish many indications usable for diagnosis of the 
school situation, exclusive of those children whose names did 
not gain admittance to these records. 

In the succeeding tabulations of facts, chiefly taken from 
school records, all children whose names were in the school 
census for the year under review are counted; and the number 
for whom practically no significant information was available in 
the school records of the districts where they held their citizen- 



School Status 71 

ship is presented as a challenge, at least, for the recognition of 
the rights of these children as citizens, now very largely ignored 
by the states except in so far as compulsory attendance laws are 
indifferently well enforced up to a fixed minimum age or other 
minimum limit for leaving school. 

Age-Grade Distribution. In Table XLII, following, each 
child whose name appears in the school census of the eight 
townships being studied is accounted for by age and grade or 
other status in so far as the records reveal the facts. Follow- 
ing the age and grade distribution of the children enrolled in the 
home school, the number for each age who are reported as in 
school elsewhere is shown as well as the number not entered, 
which is made up of young children who are entering late and 
of children who came into the school jurisdiction in time to get 
on the census list but not in time to make it worth while to enter 
schools just closing for the year. Those enumerated in the table 
under " Moved, Left," are children whose residence in the dis- 
trict, within the interval covered by this study, was too brief 
to enable them to become identified with the attendance record, 
and children who left school upon the completion of specified 
grades but about whom no other information was obtainable. A 
distribution of the children enumerated under occupations will 
be found in a " grades completed " distribution in Table XLIV. 
The unaccounted for are partly errors in taking the census, 
partly children who maintain a residence in the district claim- 
ing them, but live with grandparents or other relatives else- 
where and probably attend school or work where they live. The 
percentages of over-ageness for each type of school may be seen 
and compared at the conclusion of this table. For further com- 
parison of these percentages with the conditions in a city school 
systerri of good repute, the percentages of over-ageness in the 
public schools of Indianapolis for 1908 and for 191 1, after the 
problem had been directly attacked, are shown. (The Elemen- 
tary School Teacher, October 191 1, March 1912.) The very 
few children shown in the table as defective, include only such 
as were either physically or mentally incapacitated for either 
school attendance or work. 



72 



Two Types of Rural Schools 



TABLE 
Complete Distribution of Children on School 

District School Townships 



Age 










Grades 












In 
school 
else- 
where 


Total 

in 
school 


Not 
ent- 
ered 


De- 

fec 
tive 


Moved 
Left 


Inoc- 
cupa- 
tions 


Unac- 
count- 
ed for 


Grand 
total 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


5 


24 


























24 


13 










37 


6 


54 


7 






















1 


62 


11 




2 






75 


7 


29 


32 


10 


1 


















2 


74 


1 




5 




3 


83 


8 


6 


24 


21 


14 


3 


















68 






5 




2 


75 


9 


2 


6 


22 


25 


13 


1 














3 


72 


1 










73 


10 




1 


7 


17 


25 


5 


3 


2 










1 


61 






5 




4 


70 


11 




1 


4 


5 


25 


18 


16 


4 


1 








1 


75 




1 


1 


1 


5 


83 


12 


1 


1 


2 


6 


7 


12 


19 


4 


1 








3 


56 






3 




4 


63 


13 




1 




3 


2 


12 


15 


27 


3 








1 


64 




1 


3 


1 


3 


72 


14 








2 


1 


2 


15 


19 


3 


2 






6 


50 


3 




7 


5 


1 


66 


15 










1 




5 


14 


7 


3 




1 


9 


40 


2 


1 


10 


9 


6 


68 


16 














3 


4 


5 


1 


1 




12 


26 


4 




13 


19 


5 


67 


17 






1 


1 




6 




1 


2 


2 






17 


30 


3 


1 


19 


28 


6 


87 


18 
















2 


2 




1 


1 


4 


10 


2 




8 


33 


5 


58 


19 


116 


73 


67 


74 


1 
78 


56 


76 


77 


24 


8 




1 


14 


16 


4 




13 


49 


6 


88 


Tot. 


2 


3 


74 


728 


44 


4 


94 


145 


50 


1065 




.08 


.14 


.21 


.23 


.15 


.43 


.30 


.27 


Percentage of Overage Children in 1st Eight Grades 




.08 
.05 


.12 
.03 


.14 
.05 


.14 
.04 


.14 
.04 


.13 
.03 


.13 

.04 


.03 
.01 


Percentage of Overage in Indianapolis in 1908 




Percentage of Overage in Indianapolis in 1911 



Late Entrance. In reading the Age-Grade part of the fore- 
going table, the first thing to notice is that the census age in 
Michigan is 5 to 20, and in Ohio, is 6 to 21. This fact ex- 
plains, in part, the large number of under-age children in the 
grades of the district schools and the large number of over-age 
children in the grades of the consolidated schools. The fact 
that 65 per cent of the six-year-old children in the consolidated 
districts did not enter, is due to the distance from school and 
consequent necessarily long day away from home required by 
attendance at school. 

Basis of Calculation. The basis for calculating over-ageness 
is, as indicated in Table XLII, the use of ages 6 and 7 for the 



School Status 



73 



XLII 

Census by Age and Grade or Other Status 



Consolidated School Townships 


Grand 
Total 


Unac- 
count- 
ed for 


Inoc- 
cupa- 
tions 


Moved 
Left 


De- 
fect- 
ive 


Not 
ent- 
ered 


Total 

in 
school 


In 
school 
else- 
where 


Grades 


Age 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 




































74 










48 


26 




26 
























6 


77 






1 




5 


71 




49 


19 


3 




















7 


59 


1 




2 




3 


53 




5 


32 


13 


3 


















8 


80 


1 




1 




2 


76 




2 


24 


33 


15 


2 
















9 


62 


1 




2 


1 


4 


54 




1 


4 


14 


22 


11 


2 














10 


82 






1 




4 


77 




1 


1 


11 


22 


27 


12 


1 


2 










11 


80 


1 




1 




4 


74 


1 




1 


3 


9 


26 


20 


12 


2 










12 


75 










6 


69 










6 


12 


15 


20 


14 


2 








13 


78 


2 








2 


74 


1 






2 


2 


7 


12 


19 


20 


8 


3 






14 


89 


3 


8 


1 




3 


74 










1 


2 


9 


19 


16 


18 


8 


1 




15 


77 


1 


'8 


4 




3 


61 












1 


3 


6 


12 


21 


9 


9 




16 


79 


1 


19 


6 




3 


50 


2 










1 


2 


2 


2 


11 


9 


11 


10 


17 


75 


3 


41 


3 


1 


2 


25 


3 


















4 


4 


6 


8 


18 


64 


4 


44 


1 




1 


14 


6 
















1 




1 




6 


19 


73 


4 


61 




1 




7 


7 


























20 


1124 


22 


181 


23 


3 


90 


805 


20 


84 
.11 
.08 
.05 


81 
.37 
.12 
.03 


79 
.38 
.14 


80 
.50 
.14 
.04 


89 
.55 
.14 
.04 


75 
.55 
.13 
.03 


79 
.58 
.13 
.04 


69 
.45 
.03 
.01 


64 


34 


27 


24 


Tot. 


Per cent Overage in 1st Eight Grades 




Per cent Overage in Indianapolis in 1908 




Per cent Overage in Indianapolis in 1911 





first grade, 7 and 8 for the second, 8 and 9 for the third, 9 and 
10 for the fourth, 10 and 11 for the fifth, 11 and 12 for the 
sixth, 12 and 13 for the seventh, 13 and 14 for the eighth, and 
continuing thus through the secondary school grades. The late 
entrance and the frequently interrupted attendance of small chil- 
dren in the consolidated school tend to give the grades a wider 
range in age, and the bulk of membership in these grades is dis- 
tributed quite proportionately in numbers to three years, and 
noticeably in the sixth, seventh, eighth, and ninth grades to four 
years. In the district schools, over-ageness is greatest in the 
sixth, seventh, and eighth grades, no doubt due largely to the 
convenience and value of child labor on the farm, a factor which 



74 Two Types of Rural Schools 

should be considered also in connection with the consolidated 
school. 

The fact that ninth, tenth, eleventh, and twelfth grade pupils 
are shown in the district school townships is accounted for by 
the presence of the ninth grade in several of the districts, the 
presence of the tenth grade in the two-room school in Alamo, 
and the presence of all high school grades in the four-room 
school in Richland. Including children in school elsewhere, non- 
resident attendants in available high schools, and a few of the 
higher ages in colleges, 60 per cent of the fifteen-year-old chil- 
dren of the district schools were in school, 40 per cent of the 
sixteen-year-olds, 34 per cent of the seventeen-year-old^s, 17 
per cent of the eighteen-year-olds, and 18 per cent of the nine- 
teen-year-olds. The corresponding figures for the consolidated 
schools show 79 per cent of the sixteen-year-olds in school, 63 
per cent of the seventeen-year-olds, 33 per cent of the eighteen- 
year-olds, 22 per cent of the nineteen-year-olds, and 10 per cent 
of the twenty-year-olds. Later entrance in the consolidated 
schools explains a large part of the apparent difference. 

Attendance Distribution. The actual total attendance in days 
for the year is significant to one who is seeking the causes of 
over-ageness. Reference to Table XXXIII will show that for 
the children enrolled the percentage of attendance based on en- 
rollment was .70 in the district schools and .80 in the consoli- 
dated schools. Inspection of the same table will show that in 
spite of the absence of high school grades in most of the district 
schools, these schools enrolled 76 per cent of their census to 
80 per cent of census enrolled by the consolidated schools. These 
lump percentages do not tell much about the actual details of at- 
tendance and, to give this information as well as to offer a fur- 
ther explanation of the large number of over-aged children in 
the grades. Table XLIII is offered. This table shows a complete 
distribution, in ten-day groups, of the actual attendance of all 
the children enrolled in both types of schools. 

Striking Contrasts. The striking contrasts in Table XLIII 
are seen by adding the highest four-day groups, i.e., 140-150 
days, 150-160 days, 160-170 days, and 170-180 days, which 
shows that 57 per cent of the children of district schools had 
the possibility, by getting sufficient attendance, of completing a 



School Status 



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'j^ Two Types of Rural Schools 

year of work; and that 75 per cent of the children in the con- 
solidated schools were in attendance a sufficient number of days 
to make possible a year of school work. This is based on the 
very liberal supposition that a year of public school work can 
be done in seven months. The other striking contrast is found 
by adding the lowest six day groups, i.e., i-io days, 10-20 days, 
20-30 days, 30-40 days, 40-50 days, and 50-60 days, which shows 
that 14 per cent of the district school children attended school 
three months or less, and that 6 per cent of the children in con- 
solidated schools attended school three months or less. 

Frequent Excuses. An inquiry about the most frequent 
causes of tardiness and absence, was not answered in a form 
lending itself readily to tabular statement. The consolidated 
schools reported but very little tardiness and that was of pupils 
living near the schools. Where excuses for absence were given, 
the most frequent causes were work and sickness. In the dis- 
trict schools, tardiness varied very noticeably. Some schools had 
very little, while in several districts practically every pupil was 
tardy from one to twelve times and in some cases, individual 
pupils were credited with 23, 26, 29, 39, and 42 times tardy 
during the year. The pupil who was tardy 42 times was a boy 
fifteen years of age and his excuse was work. One school with 
an enrollment of 15 had four pupils who were each tardy more 
than 20 times in the year. One family of three children, aged 
10, 12, and 13 years respectively, were sent late to school 20 
times in the year; and another family sent two young children 
late to school 33 times in the year. In addition to work and 
sickness, some district school children offered such excuses as 
distance, bad roads, chores, and late rising. So far as facts are 
given, they seem to show that indifference, work and sickness 
are the chief causes of tardiness and absence in both types of 
schools. 

N on- Attendants. As has already been indicated, the statis- 
tics for the consolidated schools are more complete for non- 
attendants, since the aid of a teacher who had served several 
years was secured in each of these townships ; and these teachers 
supplied many items from their township acquaintance. This is 
apparent in the following table, which is a distribution to oc- 
cupations by grades completed of the number of children re- 



School Status 



77 



ported as engaged in occupations in Table XLII. The totals for 
each occupation and the median grades completed by children 
entering each, are given. The fact that the total cases tabulated 
here is less than the number reported in occupations in Table 
XLII, is due to the inability to learn what grade several chil- 
dren in occupations had completed, since no record covering 
these cases was found. 

TABLE XLIV 
Distribution by Grades Completed to Occupations 



Grades 


House- 
keeping 


Farming 


Teaching 


Business 


Dist. 

2 
8 
10 
3 
3 


Consol. 


Dist. 


Consol. 


Dist. 


Consol. 


Dist. 


Consol. 


Fourth 


4 
4 
2 
4 
5 
7 
2 
3 
9 


1 

1 
11 

29 

'\ 

2 
1 


2 
5 
6 
11 
17 
6 

I 

7 


1 

3 
2 
6 


1 
13 


1 
3 
8 
1 
1 
1 
2 




Fifth 


6 


Sixth 

Seventh 




Eighth 


4 


Ninth .. 


4 


Tenth 


2 


Eleventh 

Twelfth 


4 
13 






Totals 


26 


40 


61 


62 


12 


14 


17 


33 


Median Grades 
Completed 


8 


9 


8 


8 


12 


12 


8 


11 



Division IV. The Schools 

Eleven items were sought relating to the organization, ac- 
tivities, and needs of the schools reviewed. The first item asked 
if the attendance, grade, and credits of each pupil were recorded 
in the school register. Twenty-four of the thirty district schools 
and all four of the consolidated schools answered this question 
in the affirmative. But the records, almost without the excep- 
tion of a school, showed the urgent need of specific and insistent 
supervision in the matter of records. 

Sample Grade Distributions. The next two items, two and 
three, asked for the distribution of the pupils by grades and 
by the number promoted from each grade. Item two is sum- 
marized in Table XLII. The following distribution gives an 
opportunity to compare the number of pupils in each grade in 
two district schools of each Michigan township with the number 



78 



Tzvo Types of Rural Schools 



in each grade of each consoHdated school. The first two one- 
room schools of each Michigan township, for which the numbers 
in each grade were given, will be used in the table. 



TABLE XLV 
Sample Distribution of Grade Enrollments 









Grades 




Townships 










1st 


2nd 


3rd 


4th 


5th 


6th 


7th 


8th 


9th 


10th 


11th 


12th 


Alamo 


























Dist. No. 3. . 








2 





2 


7 


2 


1 










Dist. No. 6.. 


1 


2 


2 


1 


3 


3 





3 










Vernon 


























Consolidated 


13 


19 


17 


19 


21 


31 


11 


10 


11 


5 


4 


2 


Cooper 


























Dist. No. 4. . 


4 


2 


2 





1 








1 










Dist. No. 8fr 


4 


4 


1 


3 


6 


3 


7 


4 










Gustavus 


























Consolidated 


22 


12 


14 


13 


19 


12 


20 


22 


16 


6 


7 


4 


Richland 
























Dist. No. 4fr 


1 


2 


2 


1 


1 





3 


2 


7 








Dist. No. 12fr 











1 





2 


2 


2 










Kinsman 


























Consolidated 


27 


34 


23 


26 


25 


19 


24 


19 


23 


18 


11 


9 


Ross 


























Dist. No. 6fr 


3 


1 


3 


3 





3 





1 










Dist. No. 14fr 


9 


6 


5 





5 





3 













Johnston 


























Consolidated 


24 


15 


24 


26 


23 


12 


24 


16 


13 


10 


6 


8 



This table shows that the median number of grades in this 
sampling of district schools is six. Reference to Table XL VI 
will show that this item, based on a study of thirty schools, is 
the same — six. A showing of the median number of children in 
each grade in each type of school is made in Table XLVI. This 
is also based on a computation of thirty districts. The foregoing 
table is introduced to make particular and specific the distribu- 
tion of children by grades in the district schools. 

Schedules Explained. The careful reader of Table XLVI 
will see that the median time given to each grade in the district 
schools in one day totals more minutes than there are in the 
school day. This is reduced to a day when corrected to repre- 
sent six grades, the median number of grades in each school; 



School Status 



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8o Two Types of Rural Schools 

and making the further correction required by the fact that the 
general exercises shown as Opening Exercises, Penmanship, 
Drawing, Music, Agriculture and Nature Study, where all are 
included, alternate and only one or, at most, two of these are 
given in any one day. There were also some recitation time 
schedules which showed alternations of history with civics and 
geography with physiology as well as in other combinations. 
The fact that the median time in one day given to each two 
grades, the number of grades taught by each teacher in the con- 
solidated schools, totals less than the number of minutes in the 
daily session is accounted for by the uniting of grades for gen- 
eral exercises, and by periods for seat work and study, which 
are regularly scheduled in the recitation programs. The last 
items in Table XLVI have been worked out and added to this 
table as these items are believed to be more significant right here 
than anywhere else. These items give median numbers in each 
grade and in each room of the two types of schools as shown. 

Facsimile Programs. As a much more minutely itemized 
tabulation of what actually takes place in one day in each type 
of school under consideration at its best, the following facsimile 
programs of recitations and out-of-class activities were secured 
and are published. The best school of each type was taken 
because a publishable record like Tables XLVII and XLVIII is 
easily obtainable only where schools are working approximately 
up to the day's possibilities. At the top of each program, the 
number of children per grade is indicated in parenthesis. In 
Table XLVII, which describes, except for the intermissions, the 
total day's activities of a district school, it was possible to as- 
semble the recitation schedule at the left. However, the recita- 
tions are shown here, as in Table XLVIII which describes a con- 
solidated school, in capitals in the columns for each grade. Brief 
explanatory notes are found at the end of each program. 

The reader will readily see that, since each of the teachers 
of the consolidated school had two grades to teach, it was pos- 
sible to give a time schedule against each two grades. On the 
morning of the writer's visit to this consolidated school, the 
fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth grades were united for Chapel 
Exercises, which consisted of two songs, a Bible reading, and 



School Status 8i 

the Lord's Prayer. This is stated in explanation of what is 
meant by the word Chapel in Table XLVIII. 

Divergent Programs. These programs make clear the very 
wide difference in the problems faced by teachers of district 
schools of many grades and of consolidated schools with few 
grades to each teacher. The district school teacher who handles 
a day's work such as is shown in Table XLVII, must be a rapid- 
fire instructor and an executive genius of the first order. The 
teachers in the consolidated school whose program is shown in 
Table XLVIII, must be able to control masses of children of the 
same ages and grades; and it will be their problem to give a 
comparatively small total instruction with sufficient deliberation, 
enriched by enough variety and freshness of expression and il- 
lustration to keep the children interested all day. It should be 
recalled in this connection that the typical district school of the 
townships studied has but sixteen pupils and these were distrib- 
uted to only six* grades. Further suggestions relative to these 
tables are made in the last chapter. 

Paragraph Summaries of More General Inquiries 

Truancy. Other inquiries made concerning the schools, were 
answered in such a variety of ways that the results cannot be 
advantageously tabulated. The four district school townships 
report 34 cases of truancy, and the four consolidated school 
townships reported three cases of truancy. A comparison of 
these items, with the actual attendance record presented in Table 
XLIII, suggests that there is no effective handling of truancy 
in either type of school, in so far as the localities reported in 
this survey are concerned. 

School Sentiment. In answer to the inquiry — What have you 
done to create school sentiment? — an interesting variety of an- 
swers was given although many teachers had nothing to offer 
in response to this inquiry. Sample answers by district schools 
are : '' I tried to make the work practical and interesting." " We 
had two socials and a party. People say that these have helped." 
" We had special programs." ** I offered prizes for the best at- 
tendance." " I have tried to encourage punctuality and educa- 
tion in general." " I had entertainments, a picnic, and made 
visits to the homes." " I conducted patriotic opening exercises." 



82 



Two Types of Rural Schools 



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0000 o 
»n o th th o 
t^' (fi (fq c4 c6 



84 Tziio Types of Rural Schools 

" I tried to make work in school pleasant and not a drudgery." 
*' I introduced construction work and art, and tried to give the 
children their rightful freedom." " I gave talks on lives of 
great men and tried to cultivate the personality of the pupils." 
Answers from teachers of consolidated schools mentioned hav- 
ing college men give addresses, holding entertainments, using 
an outline given by the Superintendent and supplementing it, and 
the use of story telling. 

School Property. Another inquiry asked what had been done 
to improve the school grounds, the buildings, and the equipment. 
The district school teachers had cleaned the yard, set out trees, 
trimmed trees, planted flowers, set woodbine by buildings, and 
made gardens. For the improvement of the buildings one teacher 
scrubbed the floor, one washed the windows and woodwork, 
others had new steps built, new blackboards put in, and one 
said : " We have had a hammer and saw, and when anything 
was out of repair, the pupils fixed it." Under the improvement 
of the equipment, library books, chairs, desks, library case, pic- 
tures, and construction materials, are mentioned. One teacher 
provided a bell and a clock, by means of entertainments and 
socials. The teachers of the consolidated schools reported such 
items as planting flowers and trees, keeping the grounds clean, 
and securing laboratory equipment, new seats, and a piano. 

Special Efforts. Several teachers in each type of school re- 
ported special efforts to develop patriotism and morality, but 
these answers specified nothing further than the observance of 
national holidays and the use of good example. Under the in- 
quiry as to special work accomplished, the following items were 
given : For the district schools — ^introduced individual drinking 
cups, created sentiment for politeness, interested older pupils in 
higher education, secured instructive exhibits from manufac- 
turers, and aroused athletic interest; for consolidated schools — 
introduced use of pupils' reading circle work, organized a display 
of work at the Grange fair, and secured a stronger course of 
study. 

Present Needs. In replying to the inquiry — What are the 
present needs of this school? — the teachers of district schools 
mentioned a wide range of particulars. Among the items speci- 
fied were — school-bell, teacher's desk, new floor, maps, library. 



School Status 85 

chairs, pictures, window-shades, 'materials for elementary 
grades, supplementary text-books, reference books, book case, 
new roof, more blackboard, flag, mirror, sanitary drinking facili- 
ties, new stove, new seats, gravel in yard, globe, porch, paint, 
and instruction in agriculture. The responses from teachers of 
consolidated schools to this inquiry included mention of — library 
books and supplementary materials for lower grades, longer 
school year, more room, another teacher, music teacher, draw- 
ing, agriculture. The presence of a superintendent and the em- 
ployment of a janitor in the consolidated schools relieve the 
teachers from much direct personal responsibility for the school 
plant. 

Nature Study and Agriculture. The last inquiry relative to 
the school was — What have you done in nature study and agri- 
culture? Fifty per cent of the teachers of district schools had 
done nothing. Where work was undertaken, few discriminated 
between nature study and agriculture. The topics considered 
were — ^^grains, fruits, flowers, birds, insects, trees, seed testing, 
animal husbandry, soil, and weather maps; and several used 
facts from nature and reference to books and bulletins on agri- 
culture in connection with language work, geography, history, 
and morning exercises. Ten per cent of the district teachers re- 
ported school gardens. One teacher, who was the daughter of 
a farmer and had graduated from an excellent college, did no- 
thing with either nature study or agriculture. The consolidated 
schools reported regular classes in agriculture in three of the 
four high schools, and miscellaneous work touching various 
topics of nature study and agriculture in the grades. One school 
had regular class work in agriculture in the seventh and eighth 
grades. Several teachers made good use of plants in the school- 
rooms for nature instruction. 

Unworked Problems. The foregoing paragraph summaries 
conclude the presentation of the school status. Other items 
could be added by a more intensive study and greater accuracy 
could be secured by a more prolonged research. However, the 
serious reader of this chapter will be safe in relying upon the 
trustworthiness of the data given. The captious critic is asked 
to conserve his wit in constructive suggestion ; for, certainly, no 



86 Two Types of Rural Schools 

part of American educational activity can profit more from 
scientific research and efficient publicity than rural education. 

Perhaps the most obvious omission is that of a presentation, 
with explanatory discussion, of the high school work done by 
the consolidated schools. It has been thought best to adhere to 
the intention stated in the introduction to make this study refer 
chiefly to elementary education. The provision of worthy secon- 
dary school instruction for the youth of rural communities is 
probably too expensive a task for any one strictly rural town- 
ship; at any rate, that was the impression gained by the writer 
in repeated visits to the high school departments of the con- 
solidated schools reported in this study. A scientifically thorough 
study of the problem of secondary education in the country, to- 
gether with competent digestion and statement of the actual 
facts and possibilities, would be a very valuable public service. 

Before proceeding with the next chapter, which will offer 
some constructive interpretations of the data already shown, a 
brief recapitulation of the purpose and contents of this chapter 
is given. Chapter II sets forth the relative situations of the sev- 
eral localities in their economic, social and domestic phases, and 
this chapter is intended to present the various school situations ; 
the number of communities studied in this respect being doubled 
to give a broader and safer basis for comparison. This chapter 
has tabulated and explained four groups of facts : 

1. The relative economic and administrative phases of the 
school status. 

2. The relative educational, professional and social qualifica- 
tions and activities of the teachers and supervisors. 

3. The relative attendance, activities, progress and occupa- 
tions of pupils. 

4. A summary of relative facts of a more general nature. 



CHAPTER IV 

CONSTRUCTIVE INTERPRETATIONS 

Division I. School Considerations 

Paralleling Conditions. The method of paralleling the dis- 
trict schools and the consolidated schools, used throughout Chap- 
ter III, will be continued in the constructive interpretations con- 
cerning these schools in this chapter. Published studies of both 
types of country schools have dealt too much with the extremes 
of existing conditions. Today, the public knows the worst and 
the best rural schools ; and the district schools, because they are 
familiar in caricature and from without rather than in fact and 
from within, have been far too often classified among the worst ; 
on the other hand, consolidated schools, because they are novel 
to persons writing about them, physically younger, and less well 
typified in current thought — since what they seem to be, rather 
than what they really do, is known— have been too often, in fact 
well-nigh always, classified among the best. 

Paralleling facts which seem to cover the same activities and 
results in two different types of the same institution, is obviously 
dangerous to the extent that the types are really different^ which 
introduces an as yet poorly defined margin of error in practically 
every comparison of items. However, in the present unscientific 
stage of thought and knowledge about rural schools, this margin 
of possible error will prove a convenient cloak for the impatient 
advocate of either type who may have printed first and informed 
himself afterwards. 

Experience and Science 

Exactness in Education. The Harvard Teachers' Association, 
at its twenty-first annual meeting in March of this year, dis- 
cussed tests for school and college efficiency. Professor E. L. 

87 



88 Two Types of Rural Schools 

Thorndike stated that education has at last begun to be appre- 
ciated as an exact science based on verifiable, quantitative knowl- 
edge which is capable of rigid, unambiguous measurements. 
Dr. L. P. Ayres said, " In the management of our schools, as 
in our teaching, there must be a scientific basis." And again, 
" Scientific management and method have invaded the educa- 
tional camp and demolished tradition." Both of these men are 
leaders in substituting evidence for speculation and knowledge 
for opinion in school publicity. Dr. Ayres deprecated super- 
ficiality and pseudo-expertness and said, " Only acid and ques- 
tioning scrutiny of the work of experts, as well as novices, will 
prevent disaster." {Journal of Education, March 14, 1912, p. 
302.) 

In the same discussion. Assistant Superintendent Thompson, 
of Boston, stated clearly the conviction that it is not best to 
attempt measurement of all educational achievement. He held 
that there are personal, spiritual values, which cannot be sub- 
jected to tests which are all right as applied to the material fea- 
tures of school work. The two points of view illustrated in this 
discussion are at present in the process of adjustment to each 
other. The writer admittedly has by training and experience 
much less of the scientific than of the spiritual viewpoint; but 
the possession of both, in harmonious and stimulating inter- 
action in thought, is coveted. 

The Setting 

Early History. In the early days of this nation, country chil- 
dren were in such vast majority that they realized on a very 
large part of the general interest in education. Before the rise 
of the secondary schools, other than the academies, elementary 
education also drew a predominating proportion of local educa- 
tional interest and effort. By the multiplication of cities and 
the rapid increase in their population, together with the rise of 
secondary education and higher institutions of learning as public 
enterprises, rural education and elementary education in general 
lost rank in the public's educational program. 

The depletion of natural resources, the improvement in facili- 
ties for transportation and the invention of large capacity manu- 
facturing machinery, together with the mechanical devices for 



Constructive Interpretations 89 

saving hand labor in agriculture have been the chief among 
many causes resulting in the necessity of reconstructing rural 
life and its institutions to fit a distinctly different situation. The 
new situation, has, however, been gradual in development and 
somewhat insidious in that it has taken long enough to allow 
its total effects to be distributed, in the localities under discus- 
sion, to three generations — the pioneers who saw the changes 
begun, their sons who lived out their active lives in the period 
of the transition, and their grandsons, the present active genera- 
tion, who were born into the flood of new life. 

Education has suffered severely in the country by the pre- 
dominating emergence of urban life, by the absorption of public 
educational interest and resources disproportionately, by the 
newer and more aggressive secondary schools and universities, 
and by the time element in rural progress being too long to allow 
the full significance of the changed situation to be felt by the pre- 
sent generation. 

Readjustments in Progress. However, readjustment of the 
rural school in a multiplicity of particulars has been in progress 
throughout the years under the suggestion of the best informed 
men in the local communities, prompted by suggestions of the 
press, by public speakers, by state and county officials, and by 
observation and thought upon existing local conditions. How 
the phases of this readjustment have run, comparatively, in 
Michigan and Ohio, may be seen in the introductory chapter. 
As suggested there, and reiterated in the paragraphs preceding 
this one, there has not seemed to be enough need felt at any one 
time to initiate a thorough-going revision of the whole situation. 
It is possibly safe to accept the current judgment of the passing 
years that no wholesale changes were necessary. 

Among the larger forms of readjustment in rural education, 
the consolidation of small schools by twos and threes to form 
other small schools, has been going on slowly, without much 
public interest, for many years. Between 1881 and 1907, the 
number of districts in Kalamazoo County decreased from 134 
to 122 ; but these changes did not change the type of school, as 
only new one- and two-room schools resulted from these con- 
solidations. However, in the past twenty years, there has been 
a wide-spread and insistent assertion by educators and others 



90 Two Types of Rural Schools 

that nothing short of the consolidation of enough districts to 
make a school like the urban graded schools and of sufficient 
financial resources to maintain a high school, could save the 
rural educational situation. 

This propaganda has resulted in a slowly increasing number 
of consolidations on the scale indicated, and most unstinted 
praise has been given to this newer type of rural school. But 
still the movement for general consolidation lingers; in fact, 
it cannot get under way at all in a great majority of rural locali- 
ties. Meanwhile, the proponents of the new form of organiza- 
tion have, in many cases, lost interest in the existing district 
schools, thus dividing the local initiative already in many dis- 
tricts so small that this time honored institution was not given a 
fair chance. 

Unanswered Questions. In spite of the conceded difficulties 
of reorganizing local institutions and ignoring the attitude im- 
plied and sometimes expressed by educational enthusiasts that 
farmers as a class are opposed to all progress, there have been 
voices raised with increasing frequency to inquire if the con- 
solidated school is the true up-to-date type of rural school ; and, 
if such is the case, why do not the farmers — who are now pretty 
thoroughly familiar with a long list of published disadvantages 
of their present district schools and, if possible, a longer pub- 
lished list of the advantages of consolidated schools — why do 
these people, who are certainly the most vitally interested, hesi- 
tate to act favorably on the proposition? 

To afford materials for working out an answer to this ques- 
tion, more intensive studies than have yet been made into the 
actual services rendered by both the district and the consoli- 
dated types of rural schools, are needed. And, as forming the 
perspective for these intensive studies and thus lending and 
multiplying significance to facts learned about these schools, 
comprehensive studies of the entire rural situation for the pur- 
pose of telling the whole truth as nearly as it may be known are 
essential. Studies of various phases of the school situation alone 
have been published occasionally and, at present, the amount of 
real research study in rural education is rapidly increasing. The 
new Division of Rural Education in the Federal Bureau of 
Education will no doubt be an effective clearing house for the 



Constructive Interpretations 91 

evaluation and the wide and prompt diffusion of the new infor- 
mation gained. 

The Discussion 

Large Considerations. Two major questions suggest them- 
selves to the students of the rural school : What, in the essentials 
of its autonomic activities, is the effectiveness of this school as 
an institution, and What is its worth as an integrating agent in 
the life of its community? Attempts to answer these questions 
must be based upon an inside, itemized research in the minor 
facts of the sustenance and life of the institution; and from a 
logical organization of these facts, there must be worked out, 
first, the success of the school as a distinct institution. Cer- 
tainly the school will make its first and greatest community con- 
tribution by dignifying its own name and work with the badge 
of conceded success. In a successful school, internal activities 
beget their own external affiliations to an extent which opens 
the way for a consideration of the school as a dynamic factor 
in the life of its community. 

Section I. Maintenance 

Administration. Taking up the first large question — that of 
the essentials of autonomic activity — maintenance, including the 
discovery, accumulation, and most effective use of maximum 
financial resources, is the first essential. In rural schools, the 
whole matter of maintenance is left to local lay administration, 
except in so far as state constitutions and statutes may fix and 
enforce some minimum limits and may provide state aid funds. 
Minimum limits are set up to insure a school year of sufficient 
length, the regular attendance of young children, and instructors 
of sufficient intelligence to safeguard the rights of the child and 
the well-being of the state at large as well as the local com- 
munity. State aid funds re-enforce, with the right and the 
means of execution, the minimum limits set up. 

Inspection of Tables XXVII and XXVIII shows that in the 
district school townships, separate school jurisdictions varied in 
the areas included from 2 13/16 sections, in District Five, 
Cooper, to six sections in District Four, Cooper. In considering 
district areas, the reader should ignore the fractional districts 
because parts of these districts not in the township where the 



92 



Tzvo Types of Rural Schools 



school is administered, were not always obtained. District areas 
are determined by the topography of the land, the way the roads 
run, the location of the homes, and the willingness of the people 
within the area at the time of organization to undertake the 
maintenance of a school. But these areas remain fixed in boun- 
dary for years without much regard to fluctuation in the popula- 
tion. 



,aoi^ 


\ 
















.001 


\ 


\ 




A 






i\ 




j0o3 

A 




\ 




h 


\ 


\ 


1 


\ 




\ 


[V 


I 


V 


J 






.0 1 






V 













OistrCcts / /Fr 5 3 if. S- S-Pr 6 

Fig. I. Alamo Township 
Variations in Rates Per Cent of School Tax in Eight Districts 

Taxation. Again, inspection of the same tables shows that 
district valuations in these Michigan townships ranged from 
$30,530, in District Three, Alamo, to (omitting the village dis- 
tricts) $200,000, in District Nine Fractional, Ross. This tax 
valuation is the largest item in the explanation of a range in the 
local tax rate from one mill, in several of the districts, to .0043, 
.0045, and .0048, in other districts. Forceful illustration of the 
inequalities of the tax situation in district school townships, may 
be had in a comparison of Districts Two and Three in Alamo 
townships. These districts, though nearly the same in area, vary 



Constructive Interpretations 



93 



in valuation from $119,660 to $30,530; and in tax rate from 
.0019 to .0042; and yet on a tax rate less than one-half that of 
District Three, District Two paid $412 for education to $416 
paid by District Three. This inequality is further emphasized 
by the discovery that the poorer district pays a per capita cost 
eight dollars higher than the richer district. Tax reform could 
be accomplished by making the township the unit for taxation 
and administration regardless of whether or not the schools 



m 



I lO.croo 
/CO, Odd 
90,000 

70,600 

c 

^6,0 00 

6''0,eaO 
^fo, oa o 
3o,eoi 

Fig. 2. Alamo Township 
Variations in Valuation of Taxable Property in Eight Districts 

were consolidated. The consolidated townships have solved this 
problem. 

These facts for the district school township of Alamo are 
shown graphically in Figures i and 2. Line A-B, in Figure i 
locates the tax rate necessary to raise the same amount of money 
for school support with the township, instead of the district, as 
the unit. Line C-D, in Figure 2, shows the median valuation 
of the districts of Alamo township. If the districts in Alamo 
township which are paying more than the median tax rate wish 



94 



Two Types of Rural Schools 



to relieve themselves by making the township the unit of taxa- 
tion, they may have recourse to the optional township unit 
statute, bring on a township referendum of the matter and force 
the wealthier districts, which in this particular township have 
a majority of the votes, to say whether they will help them. 
The fact is that administrative unity in the townships of Michi- 
gan has become identified with the idea of a township consoli- 
dated school. The present Michigan law is aimed at administra- 





yjcrnoTx 


Gu.st».v\xi 


KC7\5Tna'h 


Jo K-nstoti 


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.609 




^^ 






.dot 






V 




.607 










.006^ 








\; 


.oor 








\ 


.00^ 










.oa3 


^ 


^ 






.ooz 


-^ 








,00 i 




. 







Fig. 3. Comparison of Tax Rates 
Consolidated Townships at top. District Townships at bottom. 

tive unity alone, and no doubt more use will be made of this law 
when its true character becomes better known. 

Figure 3 shows, comparatively, the tax rates of the four 
consolidated school townships, at the top, and the four district 
school townships, at the bottom. The dotted part of the line, 
for Johnston township, indicates what the tax rate would have 
been if enough money had been raised to cover the whole annual 
school budget. There was a deficit of $2500. 



Constructive Interpretations 95 

Rate of Tax. This figure raises another question of school 
maintenance equal in importance to the whole question of an 
equal distribution of the burden of taxation. What is the 
maximum bearable tax rate for school purposes in these rural 
communities? If Gustavus township, which has a per capita 
ownership of taxable property of $672, bears a school tax of ten 
mills, and only eleven heads of families out of 164 interviewed 
make any objection to the school and none of these eleven men- 
tion the tax rate; and if Cooper township, which has a per 
capita of taxable property of $642, pays a rate of about one 
and one-half mills and no one objects to this rate as either too 
high or too low, out of 192 heads of families interviewed, may 
it be safely concluded that the school tax rate is largely a matter 
of habit ? If so, then it is pertinent to inquire at what maximum 
and what minimum limits would a school tax rate break out of 
habit into consciousness? That scheme of administration which 
is able to employ this taxpaying habit nearest to the maximum 
margin is obviously the best scheme, in so far as the getting of 
the school budget goes. 

Estimates of Results. The estimates put on the results of the 
school service by heads of families in the Cooper and Richland 
district school townships, were that the schools are satisfactory; 
for 85 per cent said " Yes " and 15 per cent said " No, we are not 
satisfied." In the consolidated school townships of Gustavus and 
Kinsman, the percentages of satisfied and unsatisfied patrons were 
the same as in the district school townships. From these facts, 
it appears that the schools of both types are equally satisfactory 
in the opinion of their patrons. The miscellaneous remarks, 
printed in Table XI, strike no outstanding common objection to 
either type. For the district schools, the objections relate chiefly 
to the officers, teachers, general conduct of children, and the 
curriculum. For the consolidated schools, objections are raised 
to the length of school day, distance and waste of time, spread 
of diseases and the effects of the long ride on frail children. 

Cash on Hand. The amount left on hand at the end of the 
year was more than three times as great in the district school 
townships. Out of thirty district schools, seven carried over 
more money in their budgets than they spent for teachers' wages 
in the current year. An amendment to the state constitution, 



96 Two Types of Rural Schools 

voted in April, 191 1, eliminates from participation in the annual 
appropriation of the state common school fund, such districts 
as have enough of this fund on hand at the close of the school 
year to pay their teachers' wages for two years and also pay 
tuition of eighth grade graduates for that length of time. In 
the whole matter of getting a large tax without serious hard- 
ship and distributing the burden equally over the whole township 
as well as in the use of this money in the year for which it was 
intended, the consolidated scheme of administration makes a far 
better showing than the district scheme. The purposes for 
which money is spent, under the two types of administration, ap- 
pears in Table XXXIII; but the proportion which is wasted in 
each system, is not easy to determine. The fact that the con- 
solidated schools pay a per capita for school maintenance, which 
is one-half larger than that paid by the district schools, raises 
again a question which was first suggested by the more than 
double tax rate of the consolidated schools. 

State Aid. The real range of difference in local contribution 
to the school maintenance budget, could be seen by eliminating 
the per capita state apportionment from the total per capita 
spent, if all of the money in the annual budget were expended 
each year. But, as has already appeared, there is a compara- 
tively large amount carried over from year to year, especially in 
the districts ; and there being no way to tell, from the tables pre- 
sented, how much of this surplus is state aid, little can be done 
here in an attempt to differentiate local and state funds. This 
differentiation would furnish a prime object for an intensive 
study of the district schools of Michigan. However, the total 
per capita may be broken up to show approximately what shares 
of it are used for upkeep, for transportation, for high school in- 
struction, and for elementary school instruction. The state ap- 
portionment in Michigan, for the school year of 1910-1911, was 
$7.90 per capita, and in Ohio, this apportionment was $2.00 per 
capita. 

Per Capita Cost. The gross annual per capita cost of educa- 
tion in the district school townships, was $23 ; and in the consoli- 
dated school townships, it was $34. The per capita for care 
and upkeep in the district schools, was approximately $7 ; and in 
the consolidated schools, it was approximately $5 ; the consoli- 



Constructive Interpretations 97 

dated schools paid a per capita of $15 for transportation and a 
per capita of approximately $4 for high school instruction. 
Eliminating care and upkeep, transportation, and high school in- 
struction, it appears that the district schools paid a per capita 
of approximately $16 and the consolidated schools paid approxi- 
mately $10 per capita, for elementary school instruction. 

Expense of High Schools. The city of Kalamazoo had 15 
per cent of its total enrollment in the high school grades in 191 1 
and it paid 25 per cent of its annual budget for teachers for the 
instruction of these grades. The consolidated schools considered 
in this study, spent 46 per cent of their annual budgets for in- 
struction for the 19 per cent of their total enrollment found in 
the high school grades. The high schools had an average enroll- 
ment of sy. In one high school, at the time of the writer's visit, 
a teacher, who was a high school graduate with two years' ex- 
perience and five weeks' normal school training, spent the 35 min- 
ute recitation period teaching a class of one pupil in Latin ; while 
on the same floor, another teacher, who was a high school gradu- 
ate without experience and without any special training, passed 
a 35 minute recitation period of mutual endurance with a gram- 
mar grade class of 23 in English. Each of these teachers was 
responsible for another group of children who were in their 
seats during this recitation period. This is an exceptional in- 
stance in the high school, but it is not so exceptional in the 
grades. 

High schools which average 37 pupils in four grades are cer- 
tainly as much to be deplored on the maintenance side as are 
ten-pupil district schools. Both are glaring examples of waste in 
education. When it is remembered that these 37 high school 
pupils, who are but 19 per cent of the school's total enrollment, 
receive 46 per cent of the annual school instruction budget, the 
situation changes from a farce to a tragedy. Constructive sug- 
gestion will be deferred until other phases of the school situation 
have been presented. 

Section II. Instruction 

Teaching Corps. Estimates of the worth of rural school in- 
struction may be gained from research in the items of the per- 
sonal, academic, and professional preparation of the teachers. 



98 Two Types of Rural Schools 

Personal preparation turns, very largely, on percentage; and 
Table XLI shows that 83 per cent of the teachers in the district 
schools were children of farmers, while 80 per cent of the teach- 
ers of consolidated schools had this parentage. The meaning of 
this fact has been discussed at length by Dr. L. D. Coffman, in 
his study of " The Social Composition of the Teaching Popula- 
tion." On page 79 he says : '' This condition means that the 
population which teaching selects is restricted as to its oppor- 
tunities for personal improvement and liberal culture; that in 
the main it must enter the field of teaching with little or no pro- 
fessional preparation." And he adds the question : " What 
wonder is there that teachers receive small salaries and that there 
is a woeful lack of professional spirit among them? " 

Educational Standards. Table XLI shows that the median 
years of educational preparation for district school teachers is 
12; and for teachers in consolidated schools, 12.9. This means 
high school graduation in the first case, and approximately one 
year in addition to high school graduation in the other case. If, 
as is probably true in both cases, the high school instruction was 
largely in village and consolidated school high schools, there 
is a wide range in the real limits of its possible meaning. Vil- 
lage high schools in Michigan and the consolidated school high 
schools seen in Ohio are about as little standardized as is pos- 
sible for them to be and still use the name high school. Elimi- 
nating all of the teachers of secondary school grades, in both 
kinds of schools, the teachers of the elementary grades in the 
district schools show an average of 11.6 years of educational 
preparation ; and these teachers in the consolidated schools show 
an educational preparation of 12. i years. This indicates a quan- 
titative advantage of one-half year for the teachers of consoli- 
dated schools. 

Professional Preparation. In the same table, it is further 
shown that practically the same status exists in both groups of 
teachers in the significance of the kinds of teachers' certificates 
held. The teachers of consolidated schools have had practically 
one more year of such professional preparation as comes from 
unsupervised teaching experience. The median number of 
months of normal school instruction was six for the teachers of 
district schools and three for teachers of consolidated schools. 



Constructive Interpretations 99 

Eliminating the teachers of secondary school grades in both in- 
stances for each kind of school, it appears that teachers of 
elementary district schools have had approximately two years 
of experience and approximately one year of normal school in- 
struction; and the teachers of elementary grades in consolidated 
schools have had approximately three years of experience, and 
approximately one-half year of normal school instruction. In 
determining the approximate experience, extreme cases were 
eliminated in both instances. Age, no doubt, has value as a 
professional qualifier. Table XLI shows that the median age of 
the district school group of teachers was 22 years, and for the 
consolidated group, 24 years. Confining this item to teachers 
of elementary grades in both kinds of schools, it becomes for 
district school teachers, 23 years; and for consolidated school 
teachers, 23.3 years. 

Growth in Service. The facts presented in the two preceding 
paragraphs were derived from Tables XXXIV and XXXV. 
Table XXXVI presents facts indicative of the professional 
growth of the teachers while in service by means of attendance 
at institutes, reading the books offered in the Teachers Reading 
Circles of the states, and taking current educational periodicals. 
In the matter of days spent at institutes during the year, tiie 
teachers of consolidated schools show four and one-half days 
to two days shown by the teachers of district schools. In both 
cases, the teachers went to practically all the institute sessions 
that they had opportunity to reach. In the other items men- 
tioned, the median numbers were the same^ — ^two, in each case 
and instance. Stimulation to growth by effective supervision is 
missing from both types of schools. 

The annual visit of the County School Commissioner to the 
district schools may be more effective than appears on the sur- 
face when the commissioner has kept acquainted with the situa- 
tion by aid of correspondence and the telephone, and by the 
visits to his office of officers, patrons, and teachers. Superin- 
tendents of the consolidated schools, who have a tenure long 
enough to beget acquaintance and confidence and who are well 
enough prepared in the several high school branches which they 
teach to give them some freedom, may use the very brief time 
at their disposal for supervision to some effect. Reference to 



lOO Two Types of Rural Schools 

Table XXXVII shows that, in the four consolidated schools 
under review, the supervisory activity of the head of the school 
ranged from no visits to four rooms, to 32 visits to each of three 
rooms. These items were given from memory by the teachers. 
Social Stimulations. In such encouragements tO' growth, self- 
respect, and professional spirit as teachers may get from visits 
of officers and patrons to the school and from being entertained 
in the homes of the pupils, there is no noticeable difference, as 
the summaries of these items in Table XLI show. Summaries 
of the items — social gatherings attended by teachers, social 
gatherings managed by schools, and public entertainments given 
by the schools, are also given in this table. In these particulars, 
the advantage, in two out of the three items, rests with the 
teachers of consolidated schools quite decidedly. Further refer- 
ence to these items will be found in Section IV, following. 
Specific constructive discussion is also deferred to the conclusion 
of the section mentioned. 

Section III, Children 

Degrees of Effectiveness. The relative effectiveness of dis- 
trict and consolidated schools in their actual service to children, 
in so far as quantitative measurements reveal this fact, may be 
seen in the actual attendance, in an age-grade computation, and 
in the daily recitation and study programs of the schools. This 
is granting to their teachers approximate equality of training, 
experience, and capacity for management, instruction, and in- 
spiration. There is also an outside index of the administrative 
effectiveness of the school, in such items as '' In School Else- 
where," " Not Entered," " In Occupations," and " Unaccounted 
For," shown in Table XLII, especially when the item as to oc- 
cupations is broken up, as in Table XLIV, to show the grades 
that were completed by the children who have left school to go 
to work. 

Age-Grade Index. Keeping in mind that the legal school 
census age in Michigan is 5 to 20 years and in Ohio is 6 to 21 
years, a fact directly related to later entrance in school in the 
consolidated schools, there is still a very noticeable excess in the 
percentage of over-ageness in these schools. Reference to Table 
XLII shows that the percentages of over-ageness in the first 



Constructive Interpretations loi 

eight grades in the district schools, run from the first to the 
eighth as follows: .08, .14, .21, .23, .15, 43, .30, and .27; the 
corresponding percentages for the consolidated schools, are: .11, 
.37, -38, .50, -55, -55, -58, and 45. This means that the per- 
centages of children who, by age, ought to have finished each 
grade, who really did not finish, were (district schools first in 
couplet) — first grade, .08 — .11; second grade, .14 — .37; third 
grade, .21 — .38; fourth grade, .23 — .50; fifth grade, .15 — .55; 
sixth grade, 43 — .55 ; seventh grade, .30 — .58 ; and eighth grade, 
.27 — 45. How much of this over-ageness is due to late entrance 
and irregular attendance is not determined. Over-ageness for 
these causes while largely waste, since in these particulars the 
schools are probably planned somewhat with a view of taking 
care of children in the age-grade groups to which they normally 
belong, may not be so bad on the human side as over-ageness 
resulting from poor organization and poor instruction; since 
repetition of work may discourage as well as delay the child. 

The far better showing made by the district schools in this 
respect is directly related to the nearness of these schools to 
the homes and the earlier entrance of small children. The prac- 
tice of some district school teachers of distributing a grade, by 
putting some members of the grade partly in the grade below and 
some more largely and more often in the grade above, also affects 
the comparison. The incidental instruction, which a child gets by 
listening to higher grades recite, is also an aid to many district 
school pupils. Where the morale of the school is high, the wider 
diversity of interest and the larger unity of program of the dis- 
trict school may add a stimulus. The figures shown in Table 
XLII, from the Indianapolis city schools for the years 1908 and 
191 1, show an example of reducing over-ageness from 30 per 
cent to 70 per cent, in each grade, by giving this matter the close 
consideration which its importance deserves. 

Actual Attendance. Table XLIII shows a distribution of 
actual attendance in ten-day groups, in which it appears, as al- 
ready explained in connection with that table, that 14 per cent 
of the district school pupils attended school but three months or 
less, while but 6 per cent of the children enrolled in consolidated 
schools had so poor a record of attendance. This fact is doubt- 
less partly due to the presence of district school children about 



I02 Tzvo Types of Rural Schools 

home both before and after school, long enough to prove the 
great convenience and value of child labor in the house and 
about the farm. This research was not able to get sufficiently 
accurate data of the reasons for absence on which to base per- 
centages ; but, in a study of the whole county of Kalamazoo by 
the writer in 1907, which was more intensive in this particular, 
the chief reasons for the absence of children from the district 
schools were: work, 51 per cent; sickness, 23 per cent; and lack 
of interest, 12 per cent. (Rural School Efficiency in Kalamazoo 
County, Michigan, Bulletin No. 4, 1909, Michigan Department 
of Public Instruction.) Transportation increases regularity and 
establishes punctuality in school attendance. 

It appears further from Table XLIII that but 57 per cent of 
the children enrolled in the district schools studied had a total 
attendance of seven months or more during the year, while 75 
per cent of the children enrolled in consolidated schools had as 
good a record, though the school year of these schools was ten 
days shorter. When the percentages of over-ageness in district 
schools are considered in connection with the foregoing facts of 
very poor attendance, it seems certain that many district school 
children must be completing their grades in less than seven 
months of actual attendance. 

In Secondary Schools. How this affects the secondary school 
work of district school pupils cannot be closely shown, since 
the 36 per cent of district school pupils of fifteen years of age 
or older, who continue in school chiefly outside of their home 
district, are likely to be a more select group than the 50 per 
cent of children of the same age in consolidated townships, who 
continue in school mostly in their own schools. A consensus of 
the opinions of the principals of the high schools in Kalamazoo 
County, taken in 1907, showed the district-school-prepared high 
school students to be less well prepared than the town-school- 
prepared high school students, in the single subject of Eng- 
lish. The relative preparedness of students leaving each type 
of school to go to work, is shown in Table XLIV. The figures 
here are more complete for the consolidated schools; but their 
larger percentage of high school attendance would easily ac- 
count for their better showing. The noticeable fact in this table 
is the relatively large number in the consolidated schools who 



Constructive Interpretations 103 

finish high school before entering some business occupation. 
Neither type of school has as yet in these localities helped pupils 
entering the occupation of farming to a median preparation of 
more than eight grades, though here, also, the advantage rests, 
as would be expected, with the consolidated school in the 
number held through the high school. 

Recitation Periods. Tables XLV and XLVI show the dis- 
tribution of children to each grade in the two types of schools 
and the distribution and totals of daily recitation times, by sub- 
jects and by grades. Waiving the stimulus that is said to come 
to children and teachers from large classes, and placing the 
comparison on a quantitative basis, expressed in minutes (put- 
ting the showing for each grade in both types of school in a 
couplet with the districts first to facilitate reading), each first 
grade child gets: 13 — 6; each second grade child, 20 — 4; each 
third grade child, 22 — 5; each fourth grade child, 27 — 7; each 
fifth grade child, 27 — 7; each sixth grade child, 30 — 7; each 
seventh grade child, 26 — 8; and each eighth grade child, 45 — 8. 
The great apparent advantage of the district school is larger 
than shown by these figures, since the typical district school has 
16 children in six grades. The long recitation time in the first 
grade of the consolidated schools is due to A and B divisions of 
the beginners' section really making it three grades as com- 
pared with two in the district school. 

Individual grades in the district schools get from one-third to 
one-half the recitation time in each subject that the individual 
grades of the consolidated schools get, with the exception of 
such subjects as spelling and penmanship, where the difference 
is less. Neither type of school reported instruction in music; 
drawing was reported taught in the consolidated schools, and 
nature study and agriculture are taught more or less in each kind 
of school. 

District School Program. When reading the daily programs 
of recitations and out-of-class activities presented in Tables 
XLVII and XLVIII, it should be kept in mind that the 
typical district school of the four townships reviewed 
had but 16 pupils in six grades. However, even such a district 
school presents a complicated program-making problem, if the 
out-of-class activities are successfully controlled and directed by 



104 Two Types of Rural Schools 

the teacher. A very noticeable difference in these programs is 
the much shorter day of young children in this district school. 
There was much play outside of the school-room for all of the 
younger children; and a reading of the whole day's program 
of recitations and other work must make the teacher of one or 
two grades skeptical. However, the writer knows, from fre- 
quent visits to this district school, that programs as complete 
as this one shown were put through day after day; and that 
teacher and pupils exhibited an attitude of exhilaration and joy. 
As was said when this program was first offered, however, it 
represents the best, not the typical district school found — the 
possible rather than the actual situation — ^the problem of dis- 
trict school organization and instruction well started in the pro- 
cess of being worked out. 

Consolidated School Program. In connection with the pro- 
gram of the elementary grades of the best consolidated school 
found, it should be remembered that this school was selected 
from only four observed. The greater maturity, better educa- 
tional and professional preparation, and longer experience of 
the four teachers in this school, all proved valuable in the actual 
work of the school, at least to the extent of the 17 per cent 
better wages received by these teachers. In this school, the 
elementary grades were in a separate building and the principal 
of the building was a mature woman of excellent personal poise 
and good executive ability. There was unity of spirit and ag- 
gressiveness of action in this school. Good examples of the 
same merits were found in separate rooms in other schools, but 
this school had team work. 

In no respect is the child so much at the mercy of the teacher 
as in the recitation period ; and if the teacher has slight capacity 
for instruction, the small class and the short recitation period 
may employ to the child's advantage the little that the teacher 
has. A teacher of the minimum legal age, without practice ex- 
perience, with a meager fund of information, with no profes- 
sional knowledge and no effective supervision, in the presence 
of a large class with twenty or twenty-five minute recitation 
period and with another grade of twenty pupils in the same 
room, is swamped. It is merciful to consider the poor teacher 
in such cases, but is it not both merciful and just to think of the 



Constructive Interpretations 105 

children, for in so doing, mercy and justice are both multiplied 
as many times as the number of children in the room exceeds 
the number of teachers. The injustice which has been done to 
many district school children for years in the grade of instruc- 
tion provided for them, is reiterated and accentuated by the 
situation in such rooms as the one just described, in the con- 
solidated school. Neither the best school of either type, repre- 
sented by the programs printed in Tables XLVII and XLVIII, 
nor the worst condition in schools of either type suggested in 
the preceding paragraph, represents the general situation; but 
the best schools encourage, and the worst schools demand, in- 
vestigation. 

Relative Merits. Which type of instruction, — ^that typified in 
Table XLVII, many grades with a few pupils in each grade 
with a short and sharp recitation period and a long period of 
pretty much entirely self-directed out-of-class activity, in the 
presence of a lively variety of life in the actions of a group of 
children ranging in age through the whole elementary school 
period; or that imperfectly typified in Table XLVIII (the true 
type of graded school has but one grade in a room), two grades 
in each room, a large group of pupils in each grade, a long reci- 
tation period, a less long but more consciously directed period 
of out-of-class activities in the presence of necessarily much less 
wide scope of life in both words and actions — which of these 
types gets the best results for the children, is not settled by the 
unscientifically established concession of superiority to the 
graded type, which is common among educators. 

Since this whole question rests, as yet, largely on opinion, and 
believing that this investigation and a half life-time of somewhat 
intimate experience in the rural educational situation gives some 
basis for an opinion, the writer feels free to say that, in the light 
of facts of both research and experience, the kind of school typi- 
fied in Table XLVII, the whole school type if it may be so desig- 
nated, is, in so far as developing life is concerned, the better 
type for country children. These children live in whole homes 
which produce as well as consume ; they know about a whole in- 
dustry and participate in it all in thought, if not always in ac- 
tion ; they know a whole church, if any ; they have time to fill in 
by imagination the meager outlines of government which the 



io6 Two Types of Rural Schools 

local life affords ; they think in the large terms of Nature's sea- 
sons and laws ; in short, they have a long youth, their life is ex- 
tensive rather than intensive; and the district school when at 
its best is a whole school, and it is the best type of elementary 
school yet devised for purposes of instructing country children 
for their kind of a situation. This is neither denying nor affirm- 
ing the superiority of the graded type of school for urban chil- 
'dren, whose whole life situation is in many respects distinctly 
different. 

Section IV. The Institution 

Institutional Service. But meager statistics were accumulated 
which bear directly on the institutional services of either type 
of rural school in other respects than those already discussed, 
which pertain directly to the schools as if they were isolated 
from the community family of institutions. The large social 
service which a school renders by exemplifying individual insti- 
tutional success has already been suggested. Its outside social 
service is directly related to its inside life and it is not a matter 
which lends itself readily, as yet, to expressions in statistical de- 
tails and summaries. However, some materials are at hand bear- 
ing on the matter. That a school is chiefly a physical thing 
in general thought, is suggested by the well known practice of 
exhibiting buildings and equipment to visitors rather than show- 
ing teachers and products. That the school teachers in both 
types of schools have somewhat this same attitude, is shown by 
their answers to the question — What are the present needs of 
this school? — for, in practically all cases, the answers had refer- 
ence to the school plant. 

Actual Conditions. In pictures for which the camera has 
been judiciously placed in front of the school building and at 
an advantageous distance, many district schools and most con- 
solidated schools look fairly well ; and a closer inspection would, 
in most cases, verify the first good impression. But in too many 
cases, with both types of schools, the camera would see another 
and a very different sight if it were placed within or behind 
these same buildings. For instance, behind one consolidated 
school which presents a broad and innocently open front to the 
highway and to the general public through a widely published 
picture, there is an example of assembling, without consolida- 



Constructive Interpretations 107 

tating, several district school out-houses. The most comfortable 
explanation of the existing conditions in the particular just re- 
ferred to, which is as bad on a smaller scale in many districts 
and in many particulars less directly related to sanitation and 
decency, is that of utter financial exhaustion. However, it is 
only honest to say that very bad physical conditions are the ex- 
ception rather than the rule; and that, on the whole, the school 
plants are a true reflection of the ideas of the several communi- 
ties, which are wholesome in most respects. 

Model Plants. Students of rural education are familiar with 
the model rural school houses and equipments of the district 
school type exemplified on the campus of the New York State 
College of Agriculture at Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y., 
and on the campus of the State Normal School at Kirksville, 
Mo. These models suggest the possible uses of an up-to-date 
school plant in rural localities for the illustration of ideas of 
architecture, utility, and sanitation. The model building for 
the consolidated rural school, located in the open country 
away from the facilities for lighting and sanitation of larger 
buildings which town location gives, is a much more difficult 
and a much less well worked-out problem. Nothing ap- 
proaching a model school plant was found by this study. 

Community Co-operation. There is very little evidence pre- 
sented in any of the tables relative to the co-operative activi- 
ties of schools and other community institutions. There is 
considerable unconscious co-operation such as appears in 
pupils taking questions home for assistance; homes making 
effort to promote regularity and punctuality in school ; a few 
instances of interchange between the school and the industry 
of agriculture, in seed-testing and the use of garden tools; 
schools preparing parts or all of programs for Grange meetings ; 
exhibits by schools at fairs ; the inviting of schools to attend 
farmers' institutes; and the taking part by adults in special 
school programs, literary societies, and lyceums. The best 
example of co-operation is suggested in Table VII in the item 
showing an annual circulation of 4438 volumes by the Kins- 
man library. The school children and vans help to make this 
large circulation possible. 



io8 Two Types of Rural Schools 

Extension Education. The value of either the district school 
or the consolidated school for purposes of extension educa- 
tion, is as yet unknown. But it seems certain that, since 
extension teaching for the most part must be at least of 
secondary grade, the consolidated school is much more 
directly adaptable to such work. Some items were shown 
which signify the extent to which such indirect means as the 
annual meeting, the school libraries, the course of study, 
social activities and public entertainments, and the inter- 
change of visits between the homes and the school or teacher, 
were utilized. These items were not in all cases closely veri- 
fied, but they are as nearly correct as first-hand interviews 
with directly interested participants could get them. They are 
summarized in Tables VII, XXXIII, and XLI. A richly 
localized curriculum which still keeps its balance in a philoso- 
phical appreciation of the past and distant as well as of the 
near and present, is yet to be worked out for rural schools. 
Such a curriculum will afford multiple opportunities for sym- 
pathetic, voluntary, competent and unostentatious promotion 
by the teacher of the best things in the community life. 

Supplementary Evidence. In a study of the efficiency of the 
consolidated rural schools in Delaware County, Indiana, by J. F. 
Bobbitt (see The Elementary School Teacher, December, 191 1) 
some facts which supplement this discussion were established 
by statistical evidence. This evidence was gained from the 
official records of six graded consolidated schools, each hav- 
ing from four to eight teachers, and of thirty-four one-teacher 
rural schools of about the same total enrollment as the con- 
solidated schools studied. Mr. Bobbitt's findings are: The 
average number of days' attendance by each student was, in 
the consolidated school, iii.i days; and in the one-room 
schools, 107. 1 days. The attendance in the seventh and eighth 
grades is 8 to 12 per cent better in the consolidated school. 
In the consolidated schools, 61 students took the final exam- 
ination; of these, 45 passed and 16 failed. The percentage 
successful was 73.8. In the one-room schools, 71 took the 
final examinations — 52 passed and 19 failed. The percentage 
of successful was 73.2. 



Constructive Interpretations 109 

Section V. Specific Constructive Suggestions 

In writing some of the foregoing sections, it has seemed 
to be impossible to make constructive suggestions until the 
whole school situation had been canvassed as closely as the 
facts in hand permitted. These facts have now^ been reviewed 
with as much fullness of itemization as the patience of the 
reader is thought to warrant. The following suggestions 
may seem to be, even after all the detail of information, some- 
what naked of qualifications and hence dogmatic. But they 
represent the present stage of thought of the writer and, 
though they are stated confidently, there will be no hesitancy 
in abandoning them for something better when further in- 
formation and thought shall prompt a change. 

Organisation. As was intended in Section I of this chapter, 
taxation is very unequally distributed in the district school 
townships. This could be corrected by making the whole 
township, instead of the district, the unit for taxation and 
administration. This larger unit of administration would 
enable, also, the most economical distribution of the children 
of the township to the minimum necessary number of ele- 
mentary schools. There would also be opportunity for 
unified and more economical provision of high school instruc- 
tion for the children, either within or without the township; 
and the whole range of administration, including such major 
items as — employing teachers, securing effective supervision, 
purchasing supplies, and keeping records of funds and school 
statistics, could be simplified and improved. It seems likely, 
judging from the township administration as shown in the 
consolidated schools, that more money would be raised and 
spent for education. Richland township adopted the town- 
ship unit for purposes of taxation and administration by a 
referendum vote April i, 19 12. There was a majority of three 
votes. 

Transportation. The high tax rate and the high per capita 
cost of the consolidated schools results from the great cost of 
transportation and the provision of high school instruction 
for a small number of pupils. Transportation expenses were 
distributed as follows, in the consolidated district of Vernon : 



no Two Types of Rural Schools 





Amount 




Number 




Paid 




of 


Driver 


Per Day 


Distance 


Children 


No. 1 


$1.05 


5 miles 


11 


No. 2 


2.20 


10 " 


14 


No. 3 


1.85 


7i « 


14 


No. 4 


2.90 


10 " 


26 


No. 5 


1.68 


5 " 


22 


No. 6 


2.25 


9i " 


12 


No. 7 


2.00 


8 " 


22 


No. 8 


1.85 


7 « 


16 


No. 9 


2.00 


8 " 


18 


No. 10 


.55 


4 " 


3 



The last item is that of one family living on a hilly road and 
having the only children on that road, which made it economical 
to pay this family to furnish their own conveyance. For the 
ensuing year it was planned to divide route four, a long and 
inconvenient route, into two routes. These items show the dis- 
tinctly local character of the problem of economical transporta- 
tion. The exigencies of the case suggest that every able-bodied 
child within a distance of two miles be permitted to walk. Little 
children should not be penalized to the extent of very long and 
uncomfortable days away from their parents, and subjected to 
the care and teaching of an immature, inexperienced, and illy 
prepared youth, in order to save money to maintain a high school 
of low standard. 

The School Unit. The township is too large a unit for an 
elementary school and too small a unit for a high school. The 
148 pupils in the high schools of the four consolidated schools 
under review, could be taught much better and more economic- 
ally in one high school having four teachers, each teacher in his 
own field of science or mathematics or history or language and 
literature, than they are now taught in four high schools by 
nine teachers. The township or, as advocated by Professor 
E. P. Cubberley, the county, affords an excellent unit for taxa- 
tion and administration ; but the unit for the elementary and the 
high school must be different, by the dictation of physical condi- 
tions governing a sparse rural population whose chief economic 
resource is farm property. It seems clear that if the rural town- 
ships studied here ever get good secondary school instruction 
for their youth within driving distances of their homes, they 
will be helped to it by the state. ( See " The Improvement of 



Constructive Interpretations iii 

Rural Schools," E. P. Cubberley, Riverside Educational Mono- 
graph Series.) 

Professional Safeguards. Constructive suggestions for the 
improvement of instruction in rural schools are difficult to make 
because the present possible maximum limit of statutory safe- 
guards is not known. Neither has an adequate minimum require- 
ment been placed at the threshold of the profession. The writer 
suggests a minimum age of i8 years, a minimum academic 
preparation of twelve grades and a minimum professional train- 
ing of six weeks, for beginners, the training to be increased to 
twelve weeks before the second year of teaching and to nine 
months before the third year of teaching. It is further sug- 
gested that enough money invested in capable and devoted super- 
visors of rural teaching, in both types of schools, would provide 
a direct and effective method for improving instruction. 

Compulsory Attendance. Granted an adequate school plant 
and successful teachers, the remaining duty of the state is to 
insure the benefits of these provisions to every child who is 
capable of being instructed. The largest economy is found in 
the fullest use of the provisions for which money has already 
been spent. Specifically, the suggestion is that the present 
truancy law, which covers all unexcused children between the 
ages of seven and sixteen years in Michigan, and in Ohio, all 
unexcused children between the ages of eight and fourteen years, 
be rigidly enforced. It is suggested, also, that the Ohio age 
period for compulsory attendance be extended two years. 

Successful Teachers. Two school problems persist through 
the years ; one, to get the maximum service at a minimum cost ; 
the other, the provision of good teachers. Neither of these 
problems is being very successfully solved by either of the types 
of rural schools studied. Maximum school service for these 
communities should include first class elementary and secondary 
schools. Good teachers for rural schools must make specific 
preparation for their peculiar work in addition to the develop- 
ment of a rich personality sustained by intellectual, social, and 
spiritual culture. The states must provide, as they have not 
provided in the past, the opportunity for prospective teachers 
of rural schools to get the specific preparation needed to equip 
them for their distinctive task. This preparation should include 



112 Two Types of Rural Schools 

three groups of subjects: first, such as give a knowledge -of 
children and of their organization, management and instruction; 
second, such subjects as give power for localizing the curriculum 
in natural, industrial, and domestic illustrations and applica- 
tions ; and third, a group of subjects intended to develop social 
intelligence and inspire purposes of rural social participation 
and leadership. 

Demonstration Schools. One further and more general sug- 
gestion seems fitting. Workable methods and an applicable 
curriculum for the rural common schools must be derived in 
these schools. For refining the processes of instruction in these 
schools, certain typical rural schools should be maintained. 
These demonstration schools should be in affiliation with normal 
schools and agricultural colleges and should be taught by teachers 
of splendid personality, first rate ability, the best training and 
experience, and at a salary sufficient to command their services 
long enough for them to adapt their processes of instruction and 
the variety and selection of the materials used, to the true 
perspective of rural education. The greatest need of the rural 
elementary school is the revelation that would come from such 
demonstration schools. Rural teachers should receive this revela- 
tion before beginning their work. 



Division II. Community Considerations 

Necessary Qualifications. The background of the whole ques- 
tion of the maintenance and efficiency of rural schools is deter- 
mined by the standards of life — physical, industrial, intellectual, 
social, and spiritual — of the rural population. Local studies of 
rural education must, therefore, attempt to define this back- 
ground. This was done in Chapter II directly, and in Chapter 
III incidentally; and the suggestions just made in concluding 
Division I of this chapter were made with this background in 
mind. 

The extent to which the suggestions offered are applicable to 
other localities, must be determined by research in each particu- 
lar locality. Unauthenticated generalizations about both types 
of rural schools have been sown broadcast in public prints. All 
unqualified statements in this study should be understood, once 



Constructive Interpretations 113 

for all, to be intended for application in the specified local areas 
from which the facts upon which they are based were obtained. 

The conviction has grown upon the writer that this study is 
too broad in its scope; that it should have been intensive rather 
than comparative; that a mass of unscientific experience is, 
perhaps, more directly applicable in service than it is in defini- 
tive discussion; that details are appreciated in value by famili- 
arity; that respect for the whole truth is bred by the necessarily 
plodding approach to it through what the inexperienced research 
student finds to be a veritable fog of facts ; and that there are as 
many wonders awaiting the skilled handler of the social micro- 
scope as ever glorified the physical world to the histologist. 

A. Whole Situation. This study has tried to keep the whole 
rural situation in view. Rural communities challenge general 
statements and snap conclusions by the apparent simplicity of 
their organization. These statements and conclusions become 
the tinsel warp and woof of a shoddy fabric, which may take a 
very dignified name. Forms in social study have been derived, 
chiefly, in the practice of studying human beings in groups ; and 
the forms, vocabulary and phraseology of such study have be- 
come the common possessions of reading people. Teachers, 
preachers, editors, politicians, research scholars, and publishers 
are using this same outfit of forms, words, and phrases in 
studies of country life. This stained glass inspection can not 
see the real rural situation. Social studies of country life have 
generally gone about as far as the words isolation and individual- 
ism and have stopped there, apparently forgetting that isolation 
is a physical fact and no longer, if it ever was, necessarily a 
state of mind, and that individuals who have the time and the 
inclination to think for themselves may be as interesting subjects 
for social study as are the herded groups of mankind. Country 
people are not easily grouped; they question their leaders, they 
suspect philanthropy, they hate patronage, and they despise the 
dilettante when they recognize him. 

Community Characteristics. Persistent human habits, both 
personal and social, are rooted in the common characteristics of 
humanity; and their manifestations as between individuals and 
as between communities vary less elementally than in forms of 
expression. The student of country life must learn to identify 



114 Two Types of Rural Schools 

correctly the various surface indications with the true grade of 
thinking which they imperfectly reveal. He must set up new 
standards or, at least, mark the existing urban social standards 
with a new scale of values. 

Prolonged and intimate association by the writer with the 
people of the localities which form the basis of this discussion, 
has forced the conviction that it is not true, as might be sup- 
posed from observing these communities still puzzled with the 
coarse institutional adjustments of society, that many of the 
finer social adjustments, usually credited to institutional inter- 
course, have not been acquired. Native human equipment 
includes capacity and aptness for social adjustment, which tends 
to keep a dynamic character in spite of the lack of institutional 
opportunity. Because of this characteristic of consciousness, 
one novel and therefore vivid experience plus time to work it 
over mentally may teach more than multiple experiences of the 
same kind, with a diversely pre-occupied mind. 

Industry 

An attempt to develop a conception of solidarity in the life of 
one of the rural communities being considered must take account 
of the kind of people and the sort of place. The features of a 
country locality for the purposes of a social study are its relative 
location, its soils, its rainfall, its temperature and their distribu- 
tion. The facts of most significance about the kind of people 
are the qualities of the native stock as revealed by their origins, 
traditions and history and the proportion of native and foreign 
born, as well as the ratio of owners and renters. In thinking 
the place and the people into the close and happy articulation 
which is necessary in order to arrive at the conception of the 
community as a unit, the industrial factor is the first large 
feature of the situation. 

Economic Questions. When thought begins, questions multi- 
ply. Is the population the exact quota needed for industrial 
development? Are the financial resources of the population 
truly representative of an economical and proportionate distri- 
bution to them of the results of their production ? Are the local 
public utilities administered to the point of maximum service 
at the least consistent cost? Is the community, or inter- 



Constructive Interpretations 115 

community, employment of truly expert industrial advisers 
feasible ? Answers to these questions must be found in intensive 
research. Here, as in the school situation, the chief demand of 
aggressively ambitious men is for more money. Industry affords 
many examples of too small a working capital. This is con- 
spicuously true in agriculture. On many of the farms which 
underlie this study, farm and domestic plans and conveniences 
showed clearly a lack of money. Is the lack of working capital 
in agriculture to be supplied from within, by the enhanced pro- 
duction aided by the better markets resulting from a concentra- 
tion of population? Will the millions of federal appropriations 
for minimizing waste from pests and ignorance, solve the ques- 
tion of capital for the industry of agriculture ? 

Is the economic situation, as it relates to the cost of collecting, 
distributing and marketing agricultural products, in great need 
of statesmanlike revision? The writer was very earnestly told 
by three leading farmers of as many localities, in a series of 
farmers' institutes recently, that what they needed in order to 
make suggested improvements in their schools was, not so much 
the inclination — they already had this — but the money. There 
was no doubting the honesty of conviction of these men, all 
educated, travelled, financially well to do, and fond of farming; 
that they spoke for the farmers of their localities ; and that to 
ask these localities to maintain such an institution as the school 
at a rate of local taxation equalling that of a nearby city was 
foolish because it was an economic impossibility. 

What to do in a rural locality, without supplemental aid from 
outside, in and for any one of its fundamental institutions, must 
be determined in full recognition of the rights and the condition 
of every other one of these institutions and in the presence of 
things as they are. No transient observer is likely to get into 
this presence. The one thing that is most deeply veiled is the 
economic situation; and this is the most important thing to 
know, in order to decide what can be done. Speaking of the 
rural community as a unit, its first need is maximum industrial 
results and the distribution of these results to individuals and to 
families in accordance with the principle of the square deal. 

Agricultural Survey. The best agricultural survey yet made 
in America is reported in Bulletin 295, The College of Agricul- 



Ii6 Two Types of Rural Schools 

ture, Cornell University. For the rural communities being 
studied here, the most valuable constructive fact of industrial 
significance presented in this bulletin, is found on page 524, 
under the " Summary of Most Profitable Farms/' where it is 
said: 

" One of the most striking characteristics of these successful 
farms is the diversity of products. On each farm there are two 
to four leading products, and in most cases many minor products. 
Those with three leading products are doing better than those 
with only two. By combining two or more leading products, the 
receipts are greatly increased without much increase in expenses. 
For example, milk, potatoes, and hay may be raised for sale with 
little more labor than is required for producing milk. The 
combination of all three requires little more horses or equipment 
than is required for any one. Other combinations are equally 
efficient. The minor enterprises, as eggs, colts, etc., also^ help." 

The Homes 

Such an estimate as could be gained by personal inspection 
and interviews and from the Federal Census Bureau statistics 
(see Tables I to V, inclusive), leads to the conclusion that the 
local farming areas studied were at least equal to the average 
general farming communities of the Lake Region, in industrial 
success. The question which is always raised by presence in 
such communities, and which was intensified in interest by the 
closer observation of the house to house survey reported in 
Tables IX to XXVI, inclusive, is — What sort of home life is 
typical of these communities? This question is answered, in so 
far as the information gained by this survey answers it, in Table 
XXVI. 

Composite Picture of Homes. In the following paragraphs, 
the composite picture of the homes visited is presented. The 
items for owners' homes, yy per cent of the population in the 
townships surveyed, are given and the same item, when it is 
different, for renters' homes is given in parenthesis immediately 
following the numeral for owners' homes, in each case. This 
facilitates comparison and saves repetition. Owners' homes, in 
these areas, are headed by people of the median age of 49 (38) 
years; there are two adults; 58 (33) per cent have no children 
and the median number is one child in the 42 per cent of homes 
having children; the school is one and one- fourth miles away, 



Constructive Interpretations 117 

and the trading point two and one-half miles; 15 per cent (5 
per cent) are dissatisfied with the school ; 60 per cent are repre- 
sented in church membership and 68 per cent (71 per cent) are 
represented in church attendance; 55 per cent (43 per cent) 
have members in a Sunday school, and 56 per cent (48 per 
cent) have attendants at these schools; 43 per cent (38 per cent) 
are represented in the membership of fraternities; 8 per cent 
(38 per cent) carry no insurance; 55 per cent (25 per cent) 
carry fire insurance only; and I per cent (15 per cent) carry 
life insurance only, while 35 per cent (21 per cent) carry both 
fire and life insurance; 10 per cent (5 per cent) are represented 
in social organizations; 20 per cent (3 per cent) are represented 
in some extension course; 10 per cent (i per cent) are mem- 
bers of co-operative organizations; 43 per cent (63 per cent) 
are without telephones; $15 is the median cost of the telephone; 
and 37 per cent (53 per cent) use the mail for buying or sell- 
ing produce. 

The median number of books owned is 50 (45) ; median 
number of books purchased the past year, 6 (7) ; 40 per cent 
(43 per cent) make use of library facilities and the median 
number of library books used is 9 (10) ; 50 per cent (63 per 
cent) visit mostly in the country; 31 per cent (20 per cent) visit 
mostly in the city; 30 per cent (36 per cent) correspond mostly 
with country people, and 43 per cent (36 per cent) mostly with 
city people; the median number of newspapers taken is two; 
65 per cent (56 per cent) take magazines, and the median 
number taken is two ; 60 per cent (43 per cent) take farm papers 
and the median number taken is one; 70 per cent (16 per cent) 
take government bulletins and the median number taken is 6 
(4); 5 per cent (i per cent) take circulating reading; 26 per 
cent (15 per cent) are represented in offices of various organiza- 
tions; 36 per cent (23 per cent) have modern conveniences in 
the home; 20 per cent (6 per cent) are making repairs; 8 per 
cent are building; and the median general impression given by 
owners' premises is good, while the median for renters' is fair, 
in a scale of " excellent," " good," " fair " and '' poor." 

It is difficult to keep all of the features of this doubly com- 
posite picture in perspective. These homes seem to have too 
small families and too little young life. There seems to be at 



Ii8 Two Types of Rural Schools 

least a generation's difference in the homes of the owners and 
renters; but the renters are eleven years younger and possibly 
some of them will catch up to the grade of owners by the time 
they reach the owning age. The ten to seventy per cent who 
do the things inquired about are far easier to consider than are 
the thirty to ninety per cent who do not do these things, in solv- 
ing the problem of what is known, thought about, discussed, and 
done, in the homes of these farm communities. 

Constructive Problem. The home which has individual mem- 
bers enough to allow range of age and consequent variety of 
interest; which has inside vitality and outside connections, 
through visiting, correspondence, travel, trading, telephone, pub- 
lications taken, school, and active membership in various local 
organizations, with the probability of some of the family hold- 
ing executive offices, and the possibility of their going as dele- 
gates or visitors to outside county or state federations of these 
organizations ; such a home is likely to become a clearing house 
of information, custom, manners, taste, modern conveniences, 
and self-respect. This home is enfranchised with a most signifi- 
cant vote in the life of the community. 

The constructive problem of increasing the number and en- 
riching the life of such homes and thereby extending the power 
of the domestic franchise in all matters of community interest 
— this is a problem demanding the devoted activity of all other 
community agencies for progress, working separately and to- 
gether. The right solution of this problem, united with maxi- 
mum industrial success, makes up very largely the human and 
material endowment insuring stability and growth in the educa- 
tional, governmental and religious institutions which are the 
superstructure of rural community life. " The Healthful Farm- 
house," by A Farmer's Wife, and " The Country Home," by 
E. P. Powell, are helpful books. 

The Church 

The present status of church membership, property, annual 
maintenance, and ministers, may be seen in summary in Table 
VI. As suggested in explanation of this table. Kinsman town- 
ship, which has lost least in population, has the most satisfac- 
tory church conditions. Decrease in population is no doubt 



Constructive Interpretations 119 

largely due to the change from hand tools to horse-drawn ma- 
chinery and it may be that the population of these townships is 
still larger than the economic conditions warrant, although the 
readjustment seems to be complete. Conditions of population 
and economic possibilities cannot be ignored by church organiza- 
tions. A determination of the church needs and possibilities of 
the several farm communities reported in Table VI, would evi- 
dently furnish ample reasons for reconstructive action. 

Present Status. The Michigan townships are relatively 
twenty-two per cent less well represented in church membership 
than the Ohio townships; while their fraternity membership is 
25 per cent of their population to 17 per cent in the Ohio areas. 
The facts as to the age, experience, educational and professional 
preparation of the ministers in these several communities, as 
shown in Table XII, tell their own story. A combination, for 
work, of churches that had not pulled together much, in a small 
community, though each could hear the songs and sermons of 
the other on summer days when the windows were opened, does 
not, on the surface, seem difficult ; but such action would be in- 
deed drastic in actual application, and nothing short of an in- 
spired conviction of the utter desperation of the present situa- 
tion could possibly bring it about. 

Granted that, including the unchurched population which is 
48, 35, 34, and 26 per cent of the total in the several townships, 
any one of the townships could support two churches which 
ought to co-operate for community welfare and in many ways 
mutually reinforce one another, the question becomes — What 
are their resources and their inspiration for interesting and get- 
ting the unchurched into membership ? It is a stubborn fact that 
human resource in this matter turns on financial resource; and 
country churches do not bond for improvements. This initial 
recapitalization must evidently come from the presence of more 
money inside and possibly be supplemented from outside the 
townships, at least until the local churches gain access to the 
financial resources of the now unchurched 26 to 48 per cent of 
their population. Their inspiration for this work is, of course, 
the native impulse of the Christian religion itself re-enforced by 
the strongest human instinct — self-preservation — and the de- 
veloping social impulse for community welfare. 



120 Two Types of Rural Schools 

Constructive Suggestion. The best constructive suggestion 
that has come to the writer was given by an aged minister, who 
has had a lifetime of familiarity with rural churches. He con- 
ceded the necessity for consolidating some of the churches, but 
said that the situation demanded that young ministers of first- 
rate ability, training, and consecration acknowledge the need and 
embrace the opportunity of service in rural parishes, and that 
their service must be enthusiastic and patient in spite of the 
small salaries. Charles O. Bemies, of McClellandtown, Pa., and 
M. B. McNutt, of Plainfield, 111., and doubtless many men un- 
known to the public, including one or two referred to but un- 
named in this study, exemplify this idea. W. H. Wilson, of the 
Presbyterian Board of Home Missions, New York City, and 
G. F. Wells of the Federal Council of the Churches of Christ, 
in America, 215 Fourth Avenue, New York City, have made 
searching study of the rural church situation and much of their 
work is obtainable in print. 

Civic Life 

Although no specific statistics were gathered to show the civic 
spirit of the communities studied, the lax enforcement of the 
truancy law and the small attendance at the annual school meet- 
ing, together with other facts of general observation, yielded a 
suggestion in this respect. Without losing the present union 
of personal and public interest in civic matters and without de- 
creasing the personal factor but rather broadening it, could an 
increase be made in the public factor to the extent of giving to 
it the balance of power in controlling the civic pulse ? 

Specific Suggestions. The suggestion is that contempt in the 
court of government comes from too great familiarity with the 
minor forms and facts of the local applications of civic 
authority, and that to counteract this low tone, there is need of 
reiterated statement and illustration of the fundamental rights 
and duties of citizenship. Personal and local perspective must 
get its correct color from a constant revivifying, in memory and 
imagination, of the historical perspective, rich as an autumn 
landscape with the lights and shadows of the great personalities 
of the generations who turned their life currents into the river 
of freedom. 



Constructive Interpretations 121 

In short, the right of rehgious freedom, by which every citi- 
zen may contribute to estabhsh the moral tone, which becomes 
the civic tone when expressed in constitution and statute, has 
its correlative duty of obedience; the right of free speech, by 
which all citizens may participate in determining the civic policy 
of action, has the correlative duty of service; and the right to 
vote, by which male citizens and, in school matters, female citi- 
zens, may fix the public expenditures, has the correlative duty of 
tribute. There is no divorcing of freedom and duty. This is 
the lesson that needs to be taught in order to conserve the civic 
needs of these local communities. 



Community Solidarity 

The foregoing pages are offered in an attempt to keep the 
original plan to make this study of two types of rural schools 
find its true perspective and balance itself in the presence of 
things as they are in the communities where the particular 
schools studied are located. It is felt that a segregated study of 
any rural institution, unless correlated with separate studies of 
the other fundamental institutions of the same communities, may 
lose the force of reality and tend to dissipate rather than con- 
serve the essential unity of life in small communities. 

When the general public has become familiar with current 
standards of institutional and community life in the country, 
then intensive studies of one institution and, later, of parts of 
one institution may safely proceed. But, for the present, the 
exhibitor of the results of social studies in rural life must carry 
his stage setting with him. 

Adequate Leadership. This suggests the greatest present need 
in rural progress which is a rationally thought out and clearly 
stated theory of the whole economic and social situation in the 
country — certainly beyond the scope of this study and the intel- 
lectual range of its author. As already suggested, such a theory 
would of necessity use new forms, new words, and new phrase- 
ology. This would insulate it for the time being from the gen- 
eral public; but the rapidly increasing group of rural life stu- 
dents would welcome it and seek to popularize the general ideas. 
Leaders would mature this theory in service. 



122 Two Types of Rural Schools 

Further progress in country community building calls for a 
more adequate provision, through institutions founded for such 
purposes, of men selected, specifically trained and enlisted for 
life in rural community service. Native talent, enriched intelli- 
gence, sensitive sympathies, resolute will, — in short, an indi- 
vidually refined and a socially cultured personality — these are the 
presuppositions of a leadership equal to the constructive pro- 
gram by which the new country community is to emerge out of 
the old without losing the worthy ideals of the old. 



APPENDIX A 

The Comstock, Michigan, Consolidated School 

For purposes of comparison with the Ohio consolidated 
schools studied, and to show the largest consolidated rural school 
in Michigan, which is in Kalamazoo County, and adjacent to 
Richland township, whose district schools furnish a part of the 
research materials for this study, the tabulations presented here 
have been made. 

The Comstock consolidation was made in 1906 and consisted 
at first of four whole districts and parts of two other districts. 
The area has since been extended to 18 sections, or one-half of 
a township. The development has been very rapid in the curric- 
ulum, which now includes Domestic Art, Manual Training, 
Drawing, and Music. Library, laboratory, and class room facili- 
ties have been accumulated and excellent service has been ren- 
dered by the school, which has become one of the best graded 
schools in the county, outside of the city of Kalamazoo. 

For transportation, three vans and a trolley line which crosses 
the district and passes near the school, are used. The chief ex- 
pressions of dissatisfaction are in respect to the tax rate, which 
has risen from .0024, the first year of consolidation, to approxi- 
mately .012 in 1911, and to the difficulties of transportation. 
Extension of the school site, enlargement and improvement of 
the building, and a comparatively liberal budget for current 
expenses account for the increase of tax rate. 



123 



124 



Two Types of Rural Schools 



TABLE I 

Summaries of District and'Teachers 



District 




Teachers 




Area in Sections 


18 

$566,340 

100 

$7,000 

.012 

$1,375 

$5 

$3,747 

*$9,210 

$34 
$1,217 
785 
50 
337 
270 
252 

.80 

.93 

180 

9 

$45 

200 

60 

11 


Median Age in Years 


25 

M-1; F-18 

A-4; 1-4- T-1 






Value of School Property 

Rate of Local Tax 

Total Cost of Transportation.. . 
Per Capita Cost of Transp'n. . . 
Total Paid in Teachers' Wages 

Annual Cost of Education 

Per Capita Cost of Education 

Based on Enrollment 

Cash on Hand at End of Year . 
Volumes in Library 


Educational Preparation 

Kind and Grade of Present 


Med. 14 yrs. 

Life-62%; 
2-25%; 
3-32% 

Median 
18 mos. 
2 



Normal School Instruction . . , 
Days Attendance at Institutes 
Reading Circle Books Read. . . 
School Journals Taken 1910-11 
Months Experience Teaching . 
Days Employed in School 
1910-11 


Volumes Added During Year . . 

Children of School Age 

Enrollment 

Average Daily Attendance .... 
Percentage of Enrollment 


2 
36 

180 


Wages Per Month 1910-11 . . . 

Cost of Board, Room and 

Travel Per Month 


$110 $45 


Percentage of Attendance 


$18 


Based on Enrollment 

Days of School 


Visits by Superintendent 

Length of His Visits in Hours. 

Visits by District OflScers 

Length of Their Visits in Hrs. 
Visits by Patrons not Officers. 

Length of Visits in Hours 

Homes Visited by Teachers. . . 

Social Gatherings Attended by 

Teachers 


1 

i 
Total 19 




Median Wages Per Month (Ex- 
clusive of Superintendent).. . 

Estimated Legal Voters 

Voters at Annual Meeting 

Women Voters at Meeting 


Median i 
Total 75 
Median ^ 
Total 77 

Total 68 




Social Gatherings Managed by 
School 


12 




Public Entertainments Given 
by School 


7 









*The item for "Annual Cost Education" includes $1000 paid on debt, $600 paid for 
enlarging site and improving building, and $600 paid for electric and water facilitjes 
These items raised the tax rate to .014. 



Appendix 



125 



TABLE II 
Age-Grade Distribution 





CoMSTOCK Consolidated School 




Grades 


In 
school 
else- 
where 


Total 

in 
school 


Not 
ent- 
ered 


De- 

fect- 
ive 


Moved 
Left 


Inoc- 
cupa- 
tions 


Unac- 
count- 
ed for 


Grand 
Total 


Age 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


5 


21 
























1 


22 


4 








1 


27 


6 


24 


1 
























25 






2 




3 


30 


7 


19 


7 
























26 






1 




2 


29 


8 


s 


9 


2 


3 




















19 






1 




1 


21 


9 




5 


9 


9 


3 
















1 


27 






1 




1 


28 


10 


1 


1 


3 


8 


7 




1 














21 




1 






3 


25 


11 




1 




5 


8 


9 




2 












25 










2 


27 


12 




1 






3 


7 




6 










1 


22 










2 


24 


13 








1 


3 


3 




5 


2 








1 


22 










3 


25 


14 


1 










3 




3 


8 


1 








20 








1 


1 


22 


15 










2 






3 


6 


3 


3 


1 


1 


20 






2 


6 


6 


34 


16 
















1 


2 


2 


3 


2 


1 


11 






2 


7 


1 


21 


17 




















1 


2 


7 




10 






2 


8 


2 


22 


18 




















1 




2 


3 


6 








13 


1 


20 


19 


























4 


4 






1 


12 


1 


18 


Tot. 


71 


25 


14 


26 


26 


22 


17 


20 


18 


8 


8 


12 


13 


280 


4 


1 


12 


47 


30 


373 




.10 


.32 


.21 


.23 


.31 


.27 


.30 


.20 


.11 


.25 


.00 


.00 


Percentage over-age 1 


or grade 









TABLE III 
Distribution of Actual Attendance 





1-10 


10-20 


20-30 


30-40 


40-50 


50-60 


60-70 


70-80 


80-90 


Total 


1 

.00 


2 
.01 


5 

.02 


6 
.02 


13 
.05 


14 
.05 


5 
.02 


5 
.02 


7 


Per cent 


03 








90- 
100 


100- 
110 


110- 
120 


120- 
130 


130- 
140 


140- 
150 


150- 
160 


160- 
170 


170- 
180 


Total 

Per cent 


4 
.02 


7 
.03 


7 
.03 


6 
.02 


9 
.03 


11 
.04 


23 
.09 


35 
.13 


102 
39 







126 



Tzvo Types of Rural Schools 



APPENDIX B 



Township Maps 

The following maps show the relative size of Michigan and 
Ohio townships; the irregular areas, valuations, tax rates, and 
per capita cost of education in the district schools of the Michi- 
gan townships ; the valuation, tax rate, per capita cost of educa- 
tion, per capita cost of transportation, and the school van routes 
of the consolidated school townships in Ohio ; as well as the sec- 
tion lines, highways, railways, churches, school-houses and resi- 
dences of the several townships in both states. It will be ob- 
served that each Ohio township has an area of twenty-five square 
miles, while the Michigan township has an area of thirty-six 
square miles. 

GusTAVus Township 




— Section line. = Road. -l-l-H- Railroad. h Van 

Route. D School House. ± Church. ■ Residence. 



Appendix 



127 



Cooper Township 




— Section Line. == Road. -|-|-|-|- Railroad. District Boundary. 

□ School House. ± Church. ■ Residence. 



128 



Two Types of Rural Schools 



Kinsman Township 




— Section Line. = Road. -I-I-I-I- Railroad. h Van 

Route. D School House. db Church. ■ Residence. 



Appendix 



129 



Richland Township 




— Section Line. = Road. -|-|-|-|- Railroad. 
D School House. ± Church. 



District Boundary. 

Residence. 



VITA 

Ernest Burn ham, born at Climax, Michigan, October 15, 
1869. Elementary education in rural schools of Kalamazoo 
County, Michigan; secondary education in Battle Creek, Michi- 
gan, high school — graduated in 1891 ; college education in Albion 
College, — Ph. B. in 1896, A.M. in 1903; further graduate work 
in the University of Wisconsin, summer term, 19 10, in Cornell 
University, summer 191 1, and in Teachers College, Columbia 
University, research scholar, year of 1910-1911. 

Taught rural school 1891-1892; edited "Albion Recorder," a 
weekly newspaper published at Albion, Michigan, 1896-1899; 
County Commissioner of Schools, Calhoun County, Michigan, 
1899-1904; Director of the Department of Rural Schools, 
Western State Normal School, Kalamazoo, Michigan, since 
1904. 

Wrote — "A Study of Rural School Efficiency in Kalamazoo 
County, Michigan," published as Bulletin No. 4, 1909, by Michi- 
gan State Department of Public Instruction. 



130 



SEP 1§ 1912 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



llillllilllilllli* 

021 731 368 5 



